Case studies

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• Disaster Management Act, 2005, Section 25(2)(a): the Collector, District Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner is ex officio Chairperson of the District Disaster Management Authority.Disaster Management Act, 2005, Section 25 — Meghalaya Police (megpolice.gov.in) ↗“(a) the Collector or District Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner, as the case may be, of the district who shall be Chairperson, ex officio;”
• Disaster Management Act, 2005, Section 25(4): an officer of at least Additional Collector / ADM / Additional DC rank is the Chief Executive Officer of the District Authority.Disaster Management Act, 2005, Section 25(4) — megpolice.gov.in ↗“(4) The State Government shall appoint an officer not below the rank of Additional Collector or Additional District Magistrate or Additional Deputy Commissioner, as the case may be, of the district to be the Chief Executive Officer of the District Authority”
• W.D. Ross characterised our basic moral duties as prima facie rather than absolute or exceptionless.William David Ross — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“Ross’s major innovation involves characterising these as prima facie duties rather than absolute or exceptionless duties.”
• Ross held the duty not to harm ('do evil to no one') more pressing than the duty to do good, unless the good substantially outweighs the evil.William David Ross — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“He writes: ‘We think the principle ‘do evil to no one’ more pressing than the principle ‘do good to every one’, except when the evil is very substantially outweighed by the good’”
• All India Services (Conduct) Rules, Rule 3(1): absolute integrity and devotion to duty at all times.All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1968, Rule 3(1) — Tripura High Court (thc.nic.in) ↗“Every member of the Service shall at all times maintain absolute integrity and devotion to duty and shall do nothing which is unbecoming of a member of the Service.”

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• Article 48A directs the State to protect the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife — a duty the housing plan must honour too.The Constitution of India (Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice, as on 1 May 2024) — Article 48A ↗“The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wild life of the country.”
• The Supreme Court in Puttaswamy (2017) lists among the rights read into Article 21 both the right to shelter (Shantistar Builders, 1990) and the right to pollution-free water and air (Subhash Kumar, 1991).Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) v. Union of India, 24 August 2017, footnote 8 (rights under Article 21) — Supreme Court of India ↗“(14) The right to shelter. Shantistar Builders v. N.K. Totame (1990) 1 SCC 520 at para 9 and 13; (15) The right to pollution free water and air. Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar (1991) 1 SCC 598 at para 7;”
• Article 51A(g): every citizen's duty to protect and improve the natural environment, including forests and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures.Constitution of India (as on 2024), Article 51A — Legislative Department ↗“(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures;”
• Niyamgiri case: the Supreme Court upheld the Forest Rights Act rules requiring the Gram Sabha's prior decision before traditional forest habitats are diverted.Land and Governance under the Fifth Schedule — Ministry of Tribal Affairs (tribal.nic.in) ↗“In a detailed judgment passed by a three-judges bench in the Niyamgiri case,18 the Court unambiguously upheld the provisions of the Forest Rights Act and various government circulars issued under it which require prior decision of the Gram Sabha before their traditional habitats in forest areas are diverted for non-forest purposes.”
• Rawls's difference principle: social and economic inequalities must be to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged.John Rawls — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“They are to be to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society (the difference principle )”
• PMAY: 4.21 crore houses sanctioned since inception by June 2024, with 3 crore more committed; over 70% allocated to women.Women's empowerment backgrounder — PIB (September 2024) ↗“More than 70% of houses under the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) have been allocated to women, ensuring they have ownership and security over essential assets. In June 2024, after sanctioning 4.21 crore houses since the scheme's inception, the government committed to constructing an additional 3 crore houses”

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• AIS (Conduct) Rules, Rule 3(2B)(iv)-(v): decide solely in public interest; declare private interests relating to public duties and resolve conflicts to protect the public interest.All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1968, Rule 3(2B) — Tripura High Court (thc.nic.in) ↗“(iv) take decisions solely in public interest and use or cause to use public resources efficiently, effectively and economically; (v) declare any private interests relating to his public duties and take steps to resolve any conflicts in a way that protects the public interest;”
• AIS (Conduct) Rules, Rule 3(2B)(vii)-(viii): no decisions to benefit self, family or friends; decisions on merit alone.All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1968, Rule 3(2B) — thc.nic.in ↗“(vii) not misuse his position as civil servant and not take decisions in order to derive financial or material benefits for himself, his family or his friends; (viii) make choices, take decisions and make recommendations on merit alone;”
• AIS (Conduct) Rules, Rule 9: no member shall communicate official information to anyone not authorised to receive it.All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1968, Rule 9 — thc.nic.in ↗“9. Unauthorised communication of information.— No member of the Service shall except in accordance with any general or special order of the Government or in the performance in good faith of duties assigned to him, communicate directly or indirectly any official document or part thereof or information to any Government servant or any other person to whom he is not authorised to”
• 2nd ARC (Ethics in Governance, Ch. 9): a civil servant must implement the orders of government without bias, with honesty and without fear or favour.2nd Administrative Reforms Commission, 4th Report: Ethics in Governance (2007), Ch. 9 — DARPG (archived) ↗“A civil servant is required to implement the orders of government without bias, with honesty and without fear or favour.”
• Kautilya (Arthashastra, Book I Ch. X) prescribes examining ministers' character by offering temptations.Kautilya's Arthashastra, tr. R. Shamasastry, Book I Ch. X — archive.org ↗“ASCERTAINING BY TEMPTATIONS PURITY OR IMPURITY IN THE CHARACTER OF MINISTERS. ASSISTED by his prime minister (mantri) and his high priest, the king shall, by offering temptations, examine the character of ministers (amdtya) appointed in government departments of ordinary nature.”

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• GFR 2017, Rule 157: a demand must not be split into small piecemeal purchases to avoid the sanction of higher authority.General Financial Rules 2017 (updated), Rule 157 — dgma.gov.in ↗“Rule 157 A demand for goods should not be divided into small quantities to make piecemeal purchases to avoid the necessity of obtaining the sanction of higher authority required with reference to the estimated value of the total demand”
• GFR 2017, Rule 144: procurement must bring efficiency, economy and transparency, fair treatment of suppliers and competition.General Financial Rules 2017 (updated), Rule 144 — dgma.gov.in ↗“Rule 144 Fundamental principles of public buying (for all procurements including procurement of works). Every authority delegated with the financial powers of procuring goods in public interest shall have the responsibility and accountability to bring efficiency, economy, and transparency in matters relating to public procurement and for fair and equitable treatment of suppliers and promotion of competition in public procurement.”
• CCS (Conduct) Rules, Rule 3(2)(iv): a government servant who receives an oral direction from a superior shall seek its confirmation in writing as early as possible.Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964, Rule 3(2) — DoPT ↗“(iv) A Government servant who has received oral direction from his official superior shall seek confirmation of the same in writing as early as possible, whereupon it shall be the duty of the official superior to confirm the direction in writing.”
• Kant's categorical imperative (preliminary formulation): act only on a maxim one could will to become a universal law.Kant's Moral Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗““I ought never to act except in such a way that I could also will that my maxim should become a universal law” (G 4:402).”
• 2nd ARC (Ethics in Governance, para 6.8.5): internal reviews of prices paid for stationery, computer accessories and other purchases by field offices.2nd Administrative Reforms Commission, 4th Report: Ethics in Governance (2007), para 6.8.5 — DARPG (archived) ↗“6.8.5 Reviews/checks could be conducted internally for information relating to price paid for a wide range of purchases made by different field departments, local bodies and parastatals for stationery, computer accessories and office equipment”
• Gandhi: 'An error does not become truth by reason of multiplied propagation, nor does truth become error because nobody sees it' (Epigrams from Gandhiji, mkgandhi.org).Epigrams from Gandhiji (T) — mkgandhi.org ↗“An error does not become truth by reason of multiplied propagation, nor does truth become error because nobody sees it.”

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• The ‘Right to Work’ in the case comes from Article 41, a Directive Principle.The Constitution of India (Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice, as on 1 May 2024) — Article 41 ↗“The State shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and development, make effective provision for securing the right to work, to education and to public assistance”
• The Economic Survey 2025-26 (Ch. 10) names the Viksit Bharat – Guarantee for Rozgar and Ajeevika Mission (Gramin) (VB-G RAM G) Act, 2025 as aiming to strengthen the interventions — a development that answers written now should mention.Economic Survey 2025-26, Chapter 10 (Ministry of Finance) ↗“The Viksit Bharat – Guarantee for Rozgar and Ajeevika Mission (Gramin) (VB-G RAM G) Act, 2025, aims to strengthen the interventions.”
• Kautilya (Arthashastra) lists about forty ways of embezzlement, beginning with entering early receipts late and showing uncollected sums as collected.Kautilya's Arthashastra, tr. R. Shamasastry, Book II Ch. VIII — archive.org ↗“There are about forty ways of embezzlement: what is realised earlier is entered later on; what is realised later is entered earlier; what ought to be realised is not realised; what is hard to realise is shown as realised;”
• Economic Survey 2024-25: MGNREGS works are geotagged before, during and after execution; 99.98% of payments go through the National Electronic Fund Management System; Aadhaar-based payment has been enabled for 96.3% of total active workers.Economic Survey 2024-25, para 11.108 — indiabudget.gov.in ↗“geotagging before, during, and after the work is being done, 99.98 per cent payments are through National Electronic Fund Management System, wages are transferred under DBT, Aadhaar-based payment has been enabled for 96.3 per cent of total active workers,”
• The National Mobile Monitoring Software (NMMS) app, launched in May 2021, records real-time attendance at MGNREGA worksites with a geo-tagged photograph.Economic Survey 2022-23 — indiabudget.gov.in ↗“National Mobile Monitoring Software (NMMS) App was launched in May 2021 which permits taking real-time attendance of workers at MGNREGA worksites along with a geo-tagged photograph.”
• 2nd ARC (Ethics in Governance, para 5.4.1): social audit by beneficiary or civil-society groups helps prevent wrongdoing, including in the distribution of welfare payments.2nd Administrative Reforms Commission, 4th Report: Ethics in Governance (2007), para 5.4.1 — DARPG (archived) ↗“Social audit through client or beneficiary groups or civil society groups is yet another way of eliciting information on and prevention of wrong doing in procurement of products and services for government, in the distribution of welfare payments, in the checking of attendance of teachers and students in schools and hostels, staff in the hospitals”
• The 2nd ARC cites the Jan Sunwai (public hearings) of the Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan, Rajasthan, as a civil-society model against corruption.2nd Administrative Reforms Commission, 4th Report: Ethics in Governance (2007), Ch. 5 — DARPG (archived) ↗“2) Report Card Survey of Public Affairs Centre, Bangalore; 3) Jan Sunwai by Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan, Rajasthan and Parivartan, Delhi;”

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• Article 21 protects every ‘person’, not only citizens — the injured at the border are owed life-saving care.The Constitution of India (Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice, as on 1 May 2024) — Article 21 ↗“No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.”
• Kant's cosmopolitan right of hospitality: in an emergency, states must give non-citizens temporary shelter — read by some as a basis for a duty to accept refugees.Kant's Social and Political Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“And in an emergency such as a shipwreck, states must provide non-citizens with temporary shelter; this provision is sometimes understood as a basis for a state duty to accept refugees”
• NHRC v. State of Arunachal Pradesh, quoted by the Supreme Court in 2018: the Constitution confers certain rights on every human being, not only on citizens.Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Aadhaar) v. Union of India, judgment of 26 September 2018 — Supreme Court of India ↗“In National Human Rights Commission v. State of Arunachal Pradesh19, the Supreme Court explained it again, as under: “We are a country governed by the Rule of Law. Our Constitution confers certain rights on every human being and certain other rights on citizens. Every person is entitled to equality before the law and equal protection of the laws.””
• Border guarding follows 'One Border, One Border Guarding Force'; the India-Myanmar border is guarded by the Assam Rifles.Ministry of Home Affairs, Annual Report 2023-24, para 3.5 ↗“One ' Border, One Border Guarding Force (OBOBGF)'. Accordingly, domination of each border has been entrusted to a particular Border Guarding Force (BGF) as under: - 28 Name of Border Name of BGF India-Bangladesh and India-Pakistan Borders Border Security Force (BSF) India-China Border Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) India-Nepal and India-Bhutan Borders Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB) India-Myanmar Border Assam Rifles”
• Hague Convention V (1907), Art. 11: a neutral Power receiving belligerent troops on its territory shall intern them, as far as possible, away from the theatre of war.Hague Convention (V) on the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers, 18 October 1907 — Avalon Project, Yale Law School ↗“Art. 11. A neutral Power which receives on its territory troops belonging to the belligerent armies shall intern them, as far as possible, at a distance from the theatre of war.”
• Hague Convention V (1907), Art. 12: the neutral Power shall supply the interned with the food, clothing and relief required by humanity.Hague Convention (V) on the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers, 18 October 1907 — Avalon Project, Yale Law School ↗“Art. 12. In the absence of a special convention to the contrary, the neutral Power shall supply the interned with the food, clothing, and relief required by humanity.”

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• IEA: data centres consumed an estimated 460 TWh of electricity in 2022; their consumption could exceed 1,000 TWh in 2026, roughly Japan's electricity use.Electricity 2024: Analysis and forecast to 2026 — International Energy Agency (IEA) ↗“After globally consuming an estimated 460 terawatt-hours (TWh) in 2022, data centres’ total electricity consumption could reach more than 1 000 TWh in 2026. This demand is roughly equivalent to the electricity consumption of Japan.”
• UNESCO: training one large deep-learning model produces about 300,000 kg of CO2; its AI ethics Recommendation calls on states to account for AI's direct and indirect environmental impact across the life cycle.Recommendation on the Ethics of AI — flyer, UNESCO HQ (hosted by the Dutch National Commission for UNESCO) ↗“It is estimated that training one large deep- learning model produces about 300 000 kg of carbon dioxide which is equal to 125 round-trip flights between New York and Beijing. The policy area on environment calls on Member States to account for the direct and indirect environmental impact of AI systems throughout their life cycle and the data infrastructure; and to mitigate their negative impact.”
• Section 166(2) of the Companies Act, 2013: a director must act in good faith in the best interests of the company, its employees, the shareholders, the community and for the protection of environment.Board's Fiduciary Duties — IIM Calcutta (a₹tha, December 2021), quoting Section 166(2) of the Companies Act, 2013 ↗““A director of a company shall act in good faith in order to promote the objects of the company for the benefit of its members as a whole, and in the best interests of the company, its employees, the shareholders, the community and for the protection of environment.””
• Gandhi's trusteeship: wealth beyond an honourable livelihood belongs to the community and must be used for its welfare.Trusteeship by M.K. Gandhi (compiled by Ravindra Kelkar, Navajivan) — mkgandhi.org ↗“I must know that all that wealth does not belong to me; what belongs to me is the right to an honourable livelihood, no better than that enjoyed by millions of others. The rest of my wealth belongs to the community and must be used for the welfare of the community.”
• SEBI has mandated the top 1,000 listed companies to disclose their ESG performance through the Business Responsibility and Sustainability Report (BRSR).Impact of Global ESG standards — PIB (Ministry of Coal), 2024 ↗“The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has mandated the top 1,000 listed companies to disclose their ESG performance through the BRSR. This framework aligns with global standards like the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) and the Sustainability Accounting Standards Board (SASB).”
• Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India (Supreme Court, 28 August 1996): the precautionary principle and the polluter pays principle are part of the law of the land; the polluter pays the cost to sufferers and of reversing the damaged ecology.Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India, judgment of 28 August 1996 — Supreme Court of India (JUDIS) ↗“Remediation of the damaged environment is part of the process of "Sustainable Development" and as such polluter is liable to pay the cost to the individual sufferers as well as the cost of reversing the damaged ecology. The precautionary principle and the polluter pays principle have been accepted as part of the law of the land.”

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• Explanation to Section 152 of the BNS: comments disapproving of government measures or action, made to change them by lawful means and without exciting the activities in the section, are not an offence.The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 (Act 45 of 2023), Section 152 — Gazette of India ↗“Explanation.––Comments expressing disapprobation of the measures, or administrative or other action of the Government with a view to obtain their alteration by lawful means without exciting or attempting to excite the activities referred to in this section do not constitute an offence under this section.”
• Blocking under Section 69A of the IT Act follows the Information Technology (Procedure and Safeguards for Blocking of Access of Information by Public) Rules, 2009.Government bans 59 mobile apps — PIB (Ministry of Electronics & IT), 29 June 2020 ↗“The Ministry of Information Technology, invoking it’s power under section 69A of the Information Technology Act read with the relevant provisions of the Information Technology (Procedure and Safeguards for Blocking of Access of Information by Public) Rules 2009”
• The UK's Prevent strategy aims to tackle the ideological causes of terrorism, intervene early to support people susceptible to radicalisation, and help those engaged in terrorism to disengage and rehabilitate.Prevent duty guidance for England and Wales — GOV.UK (Home Office) ↗“The objectives of Prevent are to: tackle the ideological causes of terrorism intervene early to support people susceptible to radicalisation enable people who have already engaged in terrorism to disengage and rehabilitate”
• The UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy (adopted 2006 by consensus) has four pillars, the first on conditions conducive to terrorism and the fourth on human rights and the rule of law as the fundamental basis of the fight against terrorism.UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy — UN Office of Counter-Terrorism ↗“The United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy is composed of four pillars, namely: Measures to address the conditions conducive to the spread of terrorism. Measures to prevent and combat terrorism. Measures to build States’ capacity to prevent and combat terrorism and to strengthen the role of the United Nations system in that regard. Measures to ensure respect for human rights for all and the rule of law as the fundamental”
• The Union Home Minister (19 July 2024) asked that the IB's Multi Agency Centre become a cohesive platform bringing together all law-enforcement, anti-drug, cyber-security and intelligence agencies.Review of the Multi Agency Centre (MAC) of IB — PIB (Ministry of Home Affairs), 19 July 2024 ↗“Home Minister impressed upon all the participants to increase engagement in the Multi Agency Centre and make it into a cohesive platform that brings together all the law enforcement agencies, anti-drug agencies, cyber security and intelligence agencies, for decisive and prompt action.”

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• Section 43(5) of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 bars the arrest of a woman after sunset and before sunrise, except in exceptional circumstances with the prior permission of a first-class magistrate on a woman police officer's written report.The Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 (No. 46 of 2023) — Gazette of India, 25 December 2023 ↗“Save in exceptional circumstances, no woman shall be arrested after sunset and before sunrise, and where such exceptional circumstances exist, the woman police officer shall, by making a written report, obtain the prior permission of the Magistrate of the first class”
• PIB (10 December 2024): LWE-related violence fell 73% in 2023 from the 2010 high, and resultant deaths of civilians and security forces by 86%.Reduction in LWE violence — PIB (Ministry of Home Affairs), 10 December 2024 ↗“Resolute implementation of the ‘National Policy and Action Plan to Address Left Wing Extremism (LWE)’ both by the Centre and the States has resulted in a consistent decline in LWE both in terms of geographical spread and violence. LWE related violence has reduced by 73% in 2023 in comparison to the high levels of 2010. Resultant deaths (Civilians + Security Forces) have also reduced by 86% during the same period.”
• The National Policy and Action Plan to address LWE (2015) combines security measures, development interventions and the rights and entitlements of local communities.Reduction in LWE violence — PIB (Ministry of Home Affairs), 10 December 2024 ↗“To address the LWE problem holistically, a “National Policy and Action Plan to address LWE” was approved in 2015. It envisages a multi-prolonged strategy involving security related measures, development interventions, ensuring rights and entitlements of local communities etc.”
• UN Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms (1990): officials shall, as far as possible, apply non-violent means before force, and when force is unavoidable exercise restraint and act in proportion.Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials (Havana, 1990) — University of Minnesota Human Rights Library ↗“shall, as far as possible, apply non-violent means before resorting to the use of force and firearms. They may use force and firearms only if other means remain ineffective or without any promise of achieving the intended result. 5. Whenever the lawful use of force and firearms is unavoidable, law enforcement officials shall: (a) Exercise restraint in such use and act in proportion”
• BNSS Section 43(1) proviso: a woman's submission to custody on oral intimation is presumed, and unless circumstances require or the officer is female, the police officer shall not touch her to arrest her.The Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 — Gazette of India ↗“Provided that where a woman is to be arrested, unless the circumstances indicate to the contrary, her submission to custody on an oral intimation of arrest shall be presumed and, unless the circumstances otherwise require or unless the police officer is a female, the police officer shall not touch the person of the woman for making her arrest.”
• BNSS: whenever a female is to be searched, the search shall be made by another female with strict regard to decency.The Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 — Gazette of India ↗“Whenever it is necessary to cause a female to be searched, the search shall be made by another female with strict regard to decency.”
• The CRPF's Bastariya Battalion (241 Bn) recruits youths from four naxal-affected districts of Chhattisgarh (Bijapur, Dantewada, Narayanpur and Sukma), with female representation in line with the 33% reservation for women.First Ever PoP of Bastariya Battalion held in Chhattisgarh — CRPF (official release) ↗“Numbered 241, this new battalion of CRPF carries the moniker ‘Bastariya Battalion’ for the special reason that it comprises of youths, exclusively scouted from the four highly naxal infested Bijapur, Dantewada, Narayanpur and Sukma districts of Chhattisgarh. Another remarkable feature of the battalion is its adequate female representation which is in sync with the Government’s policy of 33 % reservation for women.”

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• Nolan principle of Integrity: holders of public office should not act or decide in order to gain financial or material benefits for themselves, their family or friends, and must declare and resolve any interests and relationships.The Seven Principles of Public Life — GOV.UK, Committee on Standards in Public Life ↗“Holders of public office must avoid placing themselves under any obligation to people or organisations that might try inappropriately to influence them in their work. They should not act or take decisions in order to gain financial or other material benefits for themselves, their family, or their friends. They must declare and resolve any interests and relationships.”
• Kant's first formulation of the categorical imperative: act only on that maxim which you can at the same time will to become a universal law.Kant's Moral Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“Kant’s first formulation of the CI states that you are to “act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law” (G 4:421).”
• The Justice B.N. Srikrishna enquiry report (January 2019) concluded that ICICI Bank's former CEO had violated the bank's code of conduct, primarily for ineffectively dealing with conflict of interest and disclosure or recusal requirements.Panel indicts Chanda Kochhar for violation of ICICI Bank's code of conduct — Outlook India (news report), 30 January 2019 ↗“The bank on Wednesday said it has received the Enquiry Report from retired Supreme Court Justice B.N. Srikrishna which concluded primarily on account of ineffectively dealing with conflict of interest and due disclosure or recusal requirements that Chanda Kochhar "was in violation" of the ICICI Bank code of conduct, its framework for dealing with conflict of interest and fiduciary duties”
• A.K. Kraipak v. Union of India (Supreme Court, 29 April 1969): a selection board member who was himself a candidate made the selections invalid, even though he stayed out when his own name was considered; the Court set the selections aside.A.K. Kraipak & Ors. v. Union of India & Ors., judgment of 29 April 1969 — Supreme Court of India (JUDIS) ↗“It is against all canons of justice to make a man judge in his own cause. It is true that he did not participate in the deliberations of the committee when his name was considered. But then the very fact that he was a member of the selection board must have had its own impact on the decision of the selection board.”

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• Section 163 of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 lets a District Magistrate issue written prohibitory orders in urgent cases of nuisance or apprehended danger where immediate prevention or speedy remedy is desirable.The Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 (No. 46 of 2023) — Gazette of India, 25 December 2023 ↗“Urgent cases of nuisance or apprehended danger 163. (1) In cases where, in the opinion of a District Magistrate, a Sub-divisional Magistrate or any other Executive Magistrate specially empowered by the State Government in this behalf, there is sufficient ground for proceeding under this section and immediate prevention or speedy remedy is desirable, such Magistrate may, by a written order”
• National Water Policy 2012: water is to be managed under the public trust doctrine as a common pool community resource; safe water for drinking and sanitation is a pre-emptive need, followed by other basic domestic needs.National Water Policy 2012 — e-PG Pathshala module (INFLIBNET, UGC) ↗“Water needs to be managed under public trust doctrine as a common pool community resource. Water is essential for sustenance of eco-system and therefore minimum ecological needs should be given due consideration. While allocating water, safe water for drinking and sanitation should be considered as pre-emptive needs followed by high priority allocation for other basic domestic needs (including needs of animals).”
• Dynamic Ground Water Resource Assessment 2024: average stage of extraction 60.47%; 751 of 6,746 assessment units (11.1%) over-exploited.Union Minister of Jal Shakti releases Dynamic Ground Water Resource Assessment Report 2024 — PIB ↗“The average stage of groundwater extraction for the country stands at 60.47 %. Out of the total 6746 assessment units (Blocks/ Mandals/ Talukas) in the country, 4951 (73.4 %) assessment units are categorized as ‘Safe. 711 (10.5 %) assessment units are categorized “Semi-critical’’, 206 (3.05 %) assessment units, have been categorized as ‘Critical’ and 751 (11.1%) assessment units have been categorized as ‘Over-exploited’.”
• Atal Bhujal Yojana: groundwater data disclosed in all 8,203 Atal Jal gram panchayats of 7 states, each of which has prepared community-led water budgets and water security plans, updated annually.Status of Atal Bhujal Yojana in Uttar Pradesh — PIB (Ministry of Jal Shakti) ↗“Measurement and public disclosure of groundwater data have been made across all 8,203 Atal Jal Gram Panchayats (GPs) of all 7 states through physical as well as electronic means. Community-led Water Budgets (WBs) and Water Security Plans (WSPs) have been prepared by all GPs of all 7 states and updated annually.”
• Gandhi's talisman: when in doubt, recall the face of the poorest and most helpless person you have seen and ask whether the step you contemplate will be of any use to him.The Gandhi Talisman (This Was Bapu, no. 70) — mkgandhi.org ↗“I will give you a talisman. Whenever you are in doubt, or when the self becomes too much with you, try the following expedient: "Recall the face of the poorest and the most helpless man whom you may have seen and ask yourself, if the step you contemplate is going to be of any use to him.”
• Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences 2009: Elinor Ostrom's studies of user-managed fish stocks, pastures, woods, lakes and groundwater basins found outcomes more often than not better than standard theories predicted; users often devise rules and enforcement to handle conflicts of interest.The Prize in Economic Sciences 2009 — press release, NobelPrize.org ↗“Based on numerous studies of user-managed fish stocks, pastures, woods, lakes, and groundwater basins, Ostrom concludes that the outcomes are, more often than not, better than predicted by standard theories. She observes that resource users frequently develop sophisticated mechanisms for decision-making and rule enforcement to handle conflicts of interest”

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• India's New Drugs and Clinical Trials Rules, 2019 require written informed consent from every trial subject.CDSCO — New Drugs and Clinical Trials Rules, 2019 ↗“In all trials, a freely given, informed, written consent is required to be obtained from each study subject.”
• The New Drugs and Clinical Trials Rules, 2019 allow an accelerated approval process for a new drug, taking into account the disease's severity, rarity or prevalence and the availability or lack of alternative treatments, provided there is a prima facie case of meaningful therapeutic benefit over the existing treatment — a lawful fast track.CDSCO — New Drugs and Clinical Trials Rules, 2019 ↗“Accelerated approval process may be allowed to a new drug for a disease or condition, taking into account its severity, rarity, or prevalence and the availability or lack of alternative treatments, provided that there is a prima facie case of the product being of meaningful therapeutic benefit over the existing treatment”
• Ranbaxy USA pleaded guilty (13 May 2013) to felony charges over adulterated drugs made at two plants in India and agreed to pay $500 million, the largest drug safety settlement to date with a generic drug maker.Generic drug manufacturer Ranbaxy pleads guilty and agrees to pay $500 million — HHS Office of Inspector General (US DOJ announcement, 13 May 2013) ↗“In the largest drug safety settlement to date with a generic drug manufacturer, Ranbaxy USA Inc., a subsidiary of Indian generic pharmaceutical manufacturer Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited, pleaded guilty today to felony charges relating to the manufacture and distribution of certain adulterated drugs made at two of Ranbaxy's manufacturing facilities in India”
• The Nuremberg Code's first principle: the voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential.Nuremberg Code: Directives for Human Experimentation — Office of Research Integrity, US HHS ↗“The voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential. The experiment should be such as to yield fruitful results for the good of society.”
• Natco obtained a compulsory licence from India's Controller of Patents for Bayer's patented cancer drug Nexavar (sorafenib), with a 6% royalty on net sales to Bayer; the appellate board upheld it.Bayer Corporation v. Union of India and others (IPAB) — WIPO Lex ↗“The third Respondent applied for compulsory license in July 2011, stating that the high price of the cancer treatment was denying access to most patients in India and that they would be able to lower its price for the Indian public. The compulsory license was granted by the Controller of Patents, with 6% of royalties on net sales to be paid to Bayer.”
• Kant's Humanity Formula: never treat humanity, in oneself or others, as a means only but always as an end in itself.Kant's Moral Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“This formulation states that we should never act in such a way that we treat humanity, whether in ourselves or in others, as a means only but always as an end in itself.”
• Down To Earth (national magazine, 14 May 2013): Ranbaxy whistle-blower Dinesh Thakur, a former director, said he found falsified drug data and cGMP violations, notified management, and alerted health authorities when it failed to correct the problems.Ranbaxy to pay $500 million to settle cases in US — Down To Earth (national news magazine), 14 May 2013 ↗“I discovered that the company falsified drug data and systemically violated current good manufacturing practices and good laboratory practices. Ranbaxy’s management was notified of these widespread problems. When they failed to correct the problems, it left me with no choice but to alert healthcare authorities”

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• Gandhi, Hind Swaraj: the means may be likened to a seed and the end to a tree, with the same inviolable connection between them.M.K. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule (Navajivan) — e-book, mkgandhi.org ↗“The means may be likened to a seed, the end to a tree; and there is just the same inviolable connection between the means and the end as there is between the seed and the tree.”
• RBI (2014): deposits unclaimed for ten years move to the Depositor Education and Awareness Fund, but the depositor remains entitled to claim the deposit from the bank.RBI seeks Public Comments on Depositor Education and Awareness Fund Scheme — Reserve Bank of India press release, 21 January 2014 ↗“The depositor would, however, be entitled to claim from the bank his deposit or operate his account after the expiry of ten years, even after the unclaimed deposit funds have been transferred to the Fund.”
• IPC section 409 punishes criminal breach of trust by a public servant or by a banker, merchant or agent entrusted with property.Section 409 in The Indian Penal Code, 1860 — Indian Kanoon ↗“409. Criminal breach of trust by public servant, or by banker, merchant or agent.— Whoever, being in any manner entrusted with property, or with any dominion over property in his capacity of a public servant or in the way of his business as a banker, mer-chant, factor, broker, attorney or agent, commits criminal breach of trust in respect of that property”
• Kant's Humanity Formula: never treat humanity, in oneself or in others, as a means only but always as an end in itself.Kant's Moral Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“This formulation states that we should never act in such a way that we treat humanity, whether in ourselves or in others, as a means only but always as an end in itself.”
• Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, section 316(5): criminal breach of trust by a public servant, or by a banker, merchant or agent entrusted with property; the same wording as IPC section 409.The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 (Gazette of India text, Ministry of Home Affairs) ↗“(5) Whoever, being in any manner entrusted with property, or with any dominion over property in his capacity of a public servant or in the way of his business as a banker, merchant, factor, broker, attorney or agent commits criminal breach of trust in respect of that property, shall be punished with imprisonment for life”

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• Parmanand Katara v Union of India (28 August 1989): under Article 21 the State must preserve life; every doctor has a professional obligation to extend services to protect life.Pt. Parmanand Katara vs Union of India & Ors, Supreme Court, 28 August 1989 — Indian Kanoon ↗“Article 21-- Obligation on the State to preserve life--Every doctor has professional obligation to extend services to protect life--All Govern- ment hospitals/Medical institutions to pro vide immediate medical aid in all cases.”
• IPC section 81 (necessity): no offence merely because an act is done knowing it is likely to cause harm, if done without criminal intention and in good faith to prevent other harm to person or property.Section 81 in The Indian Penal Code, 1860 — Indian Kanoon ↗“Nothing is an offence merely by reason of its being done with the knowledge that it is likely to cause harm, if it be done without any criminal intention to cause harm, and in good faith for the purpose of preventing or avoiding other harm to person or property.”
• e-RaktKosh, inaugurated on 7 April 2016, connects, digitises and streamlines the workflow of blood banks and blood storage centres across India.All for a Better Healthcare — MyGov blog (Team MyGov, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare initiatives), 19 July 2018 ↗“e-RaktKosh, inaugurated on April 7, 2016, is a Government of India initiative which connects, digitises and streamlines the workflow of blood banks and blood storage centres across India in a transparent way”
• Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, section 19: an act likely to cause harm is no offence if done without criminal intention and in good faith to prevent or avoid other harm to person or property; the same wording as IPC section 81.The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 (Gazette of India text, Ministry of Home Affairs) ↗“19. Nothing is an offence merely by reason of its being done with the knowledge that it is likely to cause harm, if it be done without any criminal intention to cause harm, and in good faith for the purpose of preventing or avoiding other harm to person or property.”

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• Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book II: virtue is a state of character lying in a mean between two vices, one of excess and one of defect.Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book II (tr. W.D. Ross) — The Internet Classics Archive, MIT ↗“Virtue, then, is a state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean, i.e. the mean relative to us, this being determined by a rational principle, and by that principle by which the man of practical wisdom would determine it. Now it is a mean between two vices, that which depends on excess and that which depends on defect”
• Care ethics emerged as a distinct moral theory with Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings in the mid-1980s, asserting the 'voice of care' as an alternative to the 'justice perspective'.Care Ethics — Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (University of Tennessee at Martin) ↗“the emergence of care ethics as a distinct moral theory is most often attributed to the works of psychologist Carol Gilligan and philosopher Nel Noddings in the mid-1980s. Both charged traditional moral approaches with male bias, and asserted the “voice of care” as a legitimate alternative to the “justice perspective” of liberal human rights theory.”
• Under the new labour codes (PIB, November 2025), women may work at night (before 6 a.m. and after 7 p.m.) with their consent, and the employer must arrange their safety, facilities and transport.New Labour Codes Empower Women with Greater Safety, Equality, and Workplace Flexibility — PIB factsheet, 27 November 2025 ↗“They may also work at night, i.e. before 6 a.m. and beyond 7 p.m, with their consent, and the employer is required to make adequate arrangements for their safety, facilities, and transportation.”
• The four Labour Codes, including the Code on Social Security, 2020, were made effective from 21 November 2025, rationalising 29 existing labour laws (PIB).PIB, Ministry of Labour and Employment: Government makes the four Labour Codes effective ↗“the four Labour Codes - the Code on Wages, 2019, the Industrial Relations Code, 2020, the Code on Social Security, 2020 and the Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020 are being made effective from 21st November 2025 , rationalising 29 existing labour laws”
• The Code on Social Security, 2020 incorporates nine earlier Acts, among them the Employee's Compensation Act, 1923 and the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 (PIB).PIB backgrounder: India's Labour Reforms: Simplification, Security, and Sustainable Growth ↗“The Code on Social Security incorporates existing nine Social Security Acts viz; The Employee's Compensation Act, 1923; The Employees' State Insurance Act, 1948; The Employees' Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952; The Employment Exchanges (Compulsory Notification of Vacancies) Act, 1959; The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961”
• The Code on Wages, 2019 consolidates four earlier laws, among them the Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 (PIB).PIB backgrounder: India's Labour Reforms: Simplification, Security, and Sustainable Growth ↗“The Code on Wages, 2019 seeks to simplify, consolidate, and rationalize the provisions of four existing laws- The Payment of Wages Act, 1936; The Minimum Wages Act, 1948; The Payment of Bonus Act, 1965; and The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976.”
• The Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020 amalgamates 13 Central Labour Acts, the first of them the Factories Act, 1948 (PIB).PIB backgrounder: India's Labour Reforms: Simplification, Security, and Sustainable Growth ↗“The Code has been drafted after amalgamation, simplification and rationalization of the relevant provisions of the 13 Central Labour Acts- The Factories Act, 1948; The Plantations Labour Act, 1951; The Mines Act, 1952”

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• Sardar Patel in the Constituent Assembly (10 October 1949): without a good all-India service with the independence to speak out its mind and a sense of security, India would not stay united.Constituent Assembly Debates, 10 October 1949 — Constitution of India (CLPR), constitutionofindia.net ↗“The Union will go-you will not have a united India, if you have not. a good all-India service which has the independence to speak out its mind, which has a sense of security that you will stand by your word”
• Rule 3(1)(vii)-(viii) of the CCS (Conduct) Rules, 1964 requires every government servant to maintain political neutrality and promote merit, fairness and impartiality.Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964 (updated to 31.12.2014) — Department of Personnel and Training ↗“(vii) maintain political neutrality; (viii) promote the principles of merit, fairness and impartiality in the discharge of duties”
• Rule 20 of the CCS (Conduct) Rules, 1964 bars a government servant from bringing political or other outside influence to bear on a superior to further his service interests.Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964 (updated to 31.12.2014) — Department of Personnel and Training ↗“20. Canvassing of non-official or other outside influence No Government servant shall bring or attempt to bring any political or other outside influence to bear upon any superior authority to further his interests in respect of matters pertaining to his service under the Government.”
• IAS officer Ashok Khemka was transferred 57 times in 33 years (newspaper report, April 2025).Khemka to retire today: An IAS career marked by transfers, truth and tenacity — The Tribune (newspaper), 30 April 2025 ↗“Transferred 57 times in 33 years, he remained steadfast against corruption”
• In 2012, as Director General of Land Records and Consolidation in Haryana, Khemka cancelled the mutation of a controversial land deal, which led to his immediate transfer (newspaper report).Khemka to retire today: An IAS career marked by transfers, truth and tenacity — The Tribune (newspaper), 30 April 2025 ↗“Khemka shot to national attention in 2012 when, as Director General of Land Records and Consolidation, he cancelled the mutation of a controversial land deal between real estate giant DLF and a company owned by Robert Vadra, son-in-law of then Congress president Sonia Gandhi. The action led to his immediate transfer”
• The All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1968, which govern IAS officers, require every member of the Service to maintain political neutrality and to promote merit, fairness and impartiality in the discharge of duties.All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1968 (text hosted by the High Court of Tripura) ↗“Every member of the Service shall maintain:- (i) high ethical standards, integrity and honesty; (ii) political neutrality; (iii) promoting of the principles of merit, fairness and impartiality in the discharge of duties”
• Rule 18 (Canvassing) of the All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1968: no member of the Service shall bring or attempt to bring political or other influence on a superior to further his service interests.All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1968 (text hosted by the High Court of Tripura) ↗“18. Canvassing.— No member of the Service shall bring or attempt to bring any political or other influence to bear upon any superior authority to further interests in respect of matters pertaining to his service under the Government”

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• ILO Convention No. 190 (C190), adopted in June 2019, is the first international treaty to recognise the right of everyone to a world of work free from violence and harassment.Violence and harassment in the world of work — International Labour Organization ↗“Adopted in June 2019 ILO Convention No. 190 (C190) is the first international treaty to recognize the right of everyone to a world of work free from violence and harassment, including gender-based violence and harassment.”
• Rule 3A of the CCS (Conduct) Rules, 1964: no government servant shall act in a discourteous manner in the performance of official duties.Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964 (updated to 31.12.2014) — Department of Personnel and Training ↗“3A. Promptness and Courtesy No Government servant shall (a) in the performance of his official duties, act in a discourteous manner;”
• The iGOT Karmayogi platform hosts over 4,200 courses across domain, functional and behavioural competencies (February 2026).iGOT Karmayogi platform — PIB, Ministry of Personnel (Parliament reply, 5 February 2026) ↗“As on date, more than 1.48 crore users have been onboarded, and the platform hosts over 4200 courses across domain, functional and behavioural competencies”

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• Section 74 of the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 bars any media report from disclosing particulars that could identify a child in conflict with law, a child in need of care and protection, or a child victim or witness.Ministry of Information and Broadcasting advisory of 10 October 2018 on section 74 of the Juvenile Justice Act, 2015 and the POCSO Act ↗“shall disclose the name, address or school or any other particular, which may lead to the identification of a child in conflict with law or a child in need of care and protection or a child victim or witness of a crime”
• Rule 19(2) of the CCS (Conduct) Rules, 1964: a government servant may vindicate his private character or private acts, but must submit a report on such action to the prescribed authority.Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964 (updated to 31.12.2014) — Department of Personnel and Training ↗“(2) Nothing in this rule shall be deemed to prohibit a Government servant from vindicating his private character or any act done by him in his private capacity and where any action for vindicating his private character or any act done by him in private capacity is taken, the Government servant shall submit a report to the prescribed authority regarding such action.”
• IT (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021: intermediaries must appoint a Grievance Officer who acknowledges a complaint within 24 hours and resolves it within 15 days.Government notifies Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules 2021 — PIB, Ministry of Electronics & IT, 25 February 2021 ↗“Intermediaries shall appoint a Grievance Officer to deal with such complaints andshare the name and contact details of such officer. Grievance Officer shall acknowledge the complaint within twenty four hours and resolve it within fifteen days from its receipt.”
• The National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal (cybercrime.gov.in), part of I4C, lets the public report all types of cyber-crime, with special focus on crimes against women and children.Cyber Crimes — PIB, Ministry of Home Affairs (Parliament reply) ↗“The ‘National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal’ ( https://cybercrime.gov.in ) has been launched, as a part of the I4C, to enable public to report incidents pertaining to all types of cyber-crimes, with special focus on cyber-crimes against women and children.”
• Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book II: anyone can get angry, but to do so to the right person, to the right extent, at the right time, with the right motive and in the right way is not easy.Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book II (tr. W.D. Ross) — The Internet Classics Archive, MIT ↗“any one can get angry- that is easy- or give or spend money; but to do this to the right person, to the right extent, at the right time, with the right motive, and in the right way, that is not for every one, nor is it easy”

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• Gandhi printed a list of Seven Social Sins in Young India (22 October 1925), among them 'Commerce without Morality'.Seven Social Sins, Young India, 22-10-1925 — mkgandhi.org (Bombay Sarvodaya Mandal & Gandhi Research Foundation) ↗“Seven Social Sins Politics without Principle Wealth Without Work Pleasure Without Conscience Knowledge without Character Commerce without Morality Science without Humanity Worship without Sacrifice - Young India, 22-10-1925”
• The Tata Code of Conduct: competitive information may be collected only in the normal course of business and only through legally permitted sources and means.Tata Code of Conduct (PDF hosted by Tata Steel Nederland) ↗“Any collection of competitive information shall be made only in the normal course of business and shall be obtained only through legally permitted sources and means.”
• Kant's first formulation of the categorical imperative: act only on a maxim that one could will to become a universal law.Kant's Moral Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“This brings Kant to a preliminary formulation of the CI: “I ought never to act except in such a way that I could also will that my maxim should become a universal law” (G 4:402).”

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• T.S.R. Subramanian v Union of India (Supreme Court, 31 October 2013): civil servants cannot act on verbal or oral instructions and must be protected against wrongful and arbitrary pressure from superiors, the political executive and vested interests.T.S.R. Subramanian & Ors v Union of India & Ors, Supreme Court of India, 31 October 2013 — Indian Kanoon ↗“We are of the view that the civil servants cannot function on the basis of verbal or oral instructions, orders, suggestions, proposals, etc. and they must also be protected against wrongful and arbitrary pressure exerted by the administrative superiors, political executive, business and other vested interests.”
• Rule 3(1)(v) of the CCS (Conduct) Rules, 1964: every government servant shall defend and uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India and the security of the State.Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964, Rule 3 (updated to 27 February 2015) — Department of Personnel and Training ↗“(v) defend and uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, public order, decency and morality;”
• Sarbananda Sonowal v Union of India (Supreme Court, 12 July 2005): large-scale illegal migration from Bangladesh meant Assam faced 'external aggression and internal disturbance', making it the Union's duty under Article 355 to protect the State.Sarbananda Sonowal v Union of India & Anr, Supreme Court of India, 12 July 2005 — Indian Kanoon ↗“there can be no manner of doubt that the State of Assam is facing "external aggression and internal disturbance" on account of large scale illegal migration of Bangladeshi nationals. It, therefore, becomes the duty of Union of India to take all measures for protection of the State of Assam from such external aggression and internal disturbance as enjoined in Article 355 of the Constitution.”
• MHA (Border Management-I): fence, floodlights, roads and Border Out Posts along the borders, with technological solutions where physical fencing is not feasible, and a Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System on the Pakistan and Bangladesh borders.Border Management-I Division — Ministry of Home Affairs ↗“It also involves deployment of technological solutions in such patches of the borders, which are not feasible for physical fence. Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System: To improve situational awareness at different levels of hierarchy to facilitate prompt and quick response to emerging situations”
• Section 9, Aadhaar Act, 2016: an Aadhaar number or its authentication is not, by itself, proof of citizenship or domicile.The Aadhaar (Targeted Delivery of Financial and Other Subsidies, Benefits and Services) Act, 2016, Section 9 — Indian Kanoon ↗“The Aadhaar number or the authentication thereof shall not, by itself, confer any right of, or be proof of, citizenship or domicile in respect of an Aadhaar number holder.”

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• Nuh, Haryana (19 July 2022, PTI): a DSP investigating illegal stone-mining was killed when a truck he signalled to stop drove into him — the real event the case echoes.DSP who went to stop illegal mining mowed down in Haryana's Nuh — Deccan Herald (PTI), 19 July 2022 (national newspaper report) ↗“A deputy superintendent of police investigating illegal stone-mining was killed Tuesday when a truck he signalled to stop in Haryana’s Nuh district drove into him, officials said.”
• The Supreme Court banned all mining in the Aravalli hills by its order of 29/30 October 2002, as recorded in M.C. Mehta v Union of India (8 May 2009).M.C. Mehta v Union of India & Ors, Supreme Court of India, 8 May 2009 — Indian Kanoon ↗“On 29th/30th October, 2002 this Court prohibited and banned the mining activities in the entire Aravalli hills.”
• Gandhi, on his own journal Indian Opinion: the sole aim of journalism should be service; an uncontrolled pen serves only to destroy.Mahatma Gandhi on journalism (from his own writings) — mkgandhi.org ↗“In the very first month of Indian Opinion , I realized that the sole aim of journalism should be service. The newspaper press is a great power”
• Prakash Singh v Union of India (Supreme Court, 22 September 2006): commissions converged on a State Security Commission, a minimum fixed tenure for the police chief, separation of investigation from law and order, and a new Police Act.Prakash Singh & Ors v Union of India & Ors, Supreme Court of India, 22 September 2006 — Indian Kanoon ↗“There is convergence of views on the need to have (a) State Security Commission at State level; (b) transparent procedure for the appointment of Police Chief and the desirability of giving him a minimum fixed tenure; (c) separation of investigation work from law and order; and (d) a new Police Act”
• Mission Karmayogi (2020) calibrates civil service positions to a Framework of Roles, Activities and Competencies (FRACs) and builds learning content for each.Cabinet approves Mission Karmayogi, the National Programme for Civil Services Capacity Building — PIB, 2 September 2020 ↗“To calibrate all Civil Service positions to a Framework of Roles, Activities and Competencies (FRACs) approach and to create and deliver learningcontent relevant to the identified FRACs in every Government entity”

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• Volkswagen: after selling about 590,000 diesel vehicles with 'defeat device' software that cheated US emissions tests, it agreed on 11 January 2017 to plead guilty to three felony counts and pay a $2.8 billion criminal penalty (US EPA).Learn About Volkswagen Violations — US Environmental Protection Agency ↗“On January 11, 2017 , Volkswagen agreed to plead guilty to three criminal felony counts, and agrees to pay $2.8 billion criminal penalty.”
• Volkswagen sold about 590,000 model-year 2009-2016 diesel vehicles fitted with 'defeat device' software designed to cheat US federal emissions tests (US EPA).Learn About Volkswagen Violations — US Environmental Protection Agency ↗“These settlements resolve allegations that Volkswagen violated the Clean Air Act by the sale of approximately 590,000 model year 2009 to 2016 diesel motor vehicles equipped with “defeat devices" in the form of computer software designed to cheat on federal emissions tests.”
• Section 177(9)-(10), Companies Act, 2013: listed companies (and prescribed classes) must set up a vigil mechanism for directors and employees, with safeguards against victimisation and direct access to the Audit Committee chair.The Companies Act, 2013, Section 177 — Indian Kanoon ↗“(9) Every listed company or such class or classes of companies, as may be prescribed, shall establish a vigil mechanism for directors and employees to report genuine concerns in such manner as may be prescribed. (10) The vigil mechanism under sub-section (9) shall provide for adequate safeguards against victimisation of persons who use such mechanism”
• Consumer Protection Act, 2019 (in force 20 July 2020): it introduced product liability and set up the CCPA, which can order recall of unsafe goods.Consumer Protection Act, 2019 comes into force — PIB, Ministry of Consumer Affairs, 20 July 2020 ↗“Product Liability and punishment for manufacture or sale of products containing adulterant / spurious goods. He said that the Act includes establishment of the Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) to promote, protect and enforce the rights of consumers. The CCPA will be empowered to conduct investigations into violations of consumer rights and institute complaints / prosecution, order recall of unsafe goods and services”
• Kant's first formulation of the categorical imperative: act only on a maxim that one could will to become a universal law.Kant's Moral Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“This brings Kant to a preliminary formulation of the CI: “I ought never to act except in such a way that I could also will that my maxim should become a universal law” (G 4:402).”
• Gandhi: 'In matters of conscience the law of majority has no place' (Young India, 4 August 1920, p. 3).M.K. Gandhi, Young India, 4 August 1920, p. 3 (mkgandhi.org, 'Majority and Minority') ↗“In matters of conscience the law of majority has no place. Young India, 4-8-20, p. 3”

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• Section 3(1), Employees' Compensation Act, 1923: the employer is liable for injury by accident arising out of and in the course of employment; the exemptions for drink, drugs or wilful disobedience apply only to injuries not resulting in death or permanent total disablement.The Employee's Compensation Act, 1923, Section 3 — Indian Kanoon ↗“(1) If personal injury is caused to an employee by accident arising out of and in the course of his employment, his employer shall be liable to pay compensation in accordance with the provisions of this Chapter”
• Proviso (b) to Section 3(1), Employees' Compensation Act, 1923: the employer escapes liability for accidents attributable to the employee's drink, drugs or wilful disobedience only where the injury does not result in death or permanent total disablement.The Employee's Compensation Act, 1923, Section 3 — Indian Kanoon ↗“(b) in respect of any injury, not resulting in death or permanent total disablement caused by an accident which is directly attributable to (i) the employee having been at the time thereof under the influence of drink or drugs, or (ii) the wilful disobedience”
• Umesh Kumar Nagpal (1994), quoted in Canara Bank v M. Mahesh Kumar (Supreme Court, 15 May 2015): compassionate employment exists to help the family tide over a sudden crisis; death in harness alone does not entitle the family to a job.Canara Bank & Anr v M. Mahesh Kumar, Supreme Court of India, 15 May 2015 — Indian Kanoon ↗“The whole object of granting compassionate employment is thus to enable the family to tide over the sudden crisis. The object is not to give a member of such family a post much less a post for post held by the deceased. What is further, mere death of an employee in harness does not entitle his family to such source of livelihood.”
• Article 41: the State shall make effective provision for public assistance in unemployment, old age, sickness, disablement and other cases of undeserved want.Constitution of India, Article 41 — Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice ↗“make effective provision for securing the right to work, to education and to public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement, and in other cases of undeserved want.”
• Rawls: the least advantaged are not objects of charity or pity but those to whom reciprocity is owed as a matter of basic justice.John Rawls — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗““The least advantaged are not, if all goes well, the unfortunate and unlucky—objects of our charity and compassion, much less our pity—but those to whom reciprocity is owed as a matter of basic justice””
• The four Labour Codes, including the Code on Social Security, 2020, were made effective from 21 November 2025, rationalising 29 existing labour laws (PIB).PIB, Ministry of Labour and Employment: Government makes the four Labour Codes effective ↗“the four Labour Codes - the Code on Wages, 2019, the Industrial Relations Code, 2020, the Code on Social Security, 2020 and the Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020 are being made effective from 21st November 2025 , rationalising 29 existing labour laws”
• The Code on Social Security, 2020 incorporates nine earlier Acts, among them the Employee's Compensation Act, 1923 and the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 (PIB).PIB backgrounder: India's Labour Reforms: Simplification, Security, and Sustainable Growth ↗“The Code on Social Security incorporates existing nine Social Security Acts viz; The Employee's Compensation Act, 1923; The Employees' State Insurance Act, 1948; The Employees' Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952; The Employment Exchanges (Compulsory Notification of Vacancies) Act, 1959; The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961”

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• Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v Union of India (Supreme Court, 28 August 1996): the Precautionary Principle and the Polluter Pays principle are essential features of sustainable development.Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v Union of India & Ors, Supreme Court of India, 28 August 1996 — Indian Kanoon ↗“We are, however, of the vies that "The Precautionary Principle" and "The Polluter Pays" principle are essential features of "Sustainable Development".”
• Section 5, Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: the power to issue binding directions includes directing the closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, and stopping its electricity or water supply.The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, Section 5 — Indian Kanoon ↗“the power to issue directions under this section includes the power to direct (a) the closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process; or (b) stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity or water or any other service.”
• Gujarat (5 June 2019): the world's first particulate-emissions trading market was launched in Surat, building on the Gujarat Pollution Control Board's use of continuous emissions monitoring systems to track industrial emissions in real time.India Launches World's First Particulate Emission Trading — Economic Growth Center, Yale University, 6 June 2019 ↗“The emissions trading program builds on another early innovation by the GPCB, the use of continuous emissions monitoring systems to track industry emissions in real time. About 350 industries around Surat have installed continuous emissions monitoring systems and now transmit real-time, high-quality emissions data.”
• Subhash Kumar v State of Bihar (Supreme Court, 9 January 1991): the right to life under Article 21 includes the right to enjoy pollution-free water and air.Subhash Kumar v State of Bihar & Ors, Supreme Court of India, 9 January 1991 — Indian Kanoon ↗“Article 21-Right to live includes right to enjoyment of pollution free water and air- A citizen has a right to invoke Article 32 for removing pollution.”
• Article 48A: the State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wild life of the country.Constitution of India, Article 48A — Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice ↗“48A. Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of forests and wild life.—The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wild life of the country.”

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• In a Scheduled Area, PESA (1996) makes the recommendation of the gram sabha or the panchayat at the appropriate level mandatory before any prospecting licence or mining lease for minor minerals such as sand, which gives the tribal community a legal lever against the mafia.The Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996, section 4(k), Ministry of Tribal Affairs ↗“the recommendations of the Gram Sabha or the Panchayats at the appropriate level shall be made mandatory prior to grant of prospecting licence or mining lease for minor minerals in the Scheduled Areas”
• Aristotle: courage is the mean regarding fear and confidence; the man who exceeds in confidence is rash, and he who exceeds in fear is a coward.Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book II (trans. W. D. Ross) — The Internet Classics Archive, MIT ↗“With regard to feelings of fear and confidence courage is the mean; of the people who exceed, he who exceeds in fearlessness has no name (many of the states have no name), while the man who exceeds in confidence is rash, and he who exceeds in fear and falls short in confidence is a coward.”
• MoEFCC sand-mining guidelines: there is a need for strict surveillance, particularly at night, and Gujarat's 'Trinetra' programme uses night-vision drones for night surveillance to control illegal mining incidents.Enforcement & Monitoring Guidelines for Sand Mining, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, January 2020 ↗“The Taskforce shall be headed by officer not less than ADM rank and quarterly outcome shall be submitted to District administration. In addition to the above, there is a need for strict surveillance, particularly at night. The State of Gujarat has already initiated a program called ‘Trinetra’ for night surveillance by using night-vision drones to control illegal mining incidents.”
• MoEFCC sand-mining guidelines: the route of the vehicle (carrying sand) from source to destination is to be tracked through the system using checkpoints, RFID tags and GPS.Enforcement & Monitoring Guidelines for Sand Mining, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, January 2020 ↗“vii. The route of the vehicle from source to destination shall be tracked through the system using checkpoints, Radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags, and Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking.”

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• The University Education Commission (chaired by S. Radhakrishnan) recorded the complaint that examinations tend to corrupt the Moral standards of university life, and was convinced that if it were to suggest one single reform in university education it should be that of the examinations.Report of the University Education Commission (Radhakrishnan Commission), Government of India, Ministry of Education — PDF of the report hosted by educationforallinindia.com ↗“how they tend to corrupt the Moral standards of university life. 2. Reform Essential.-We are convinced that if we are to suggest one single reform in university education it should be that of the examinations.”
• Nolan principle of integrity: holders of public office must avoid any obligation to those who might try to influence them inappropriately, and must not act for personal or family gain.The Seven Principles of Public Life — Committee on Standards in Public Life, GOV.UK ↗“1.2 Integrity Holders of public office must avoid placing themselves under any obligation to people or organisations that might try inappropriately to influence them in their work. They should not act or take decisions in order to gain financial or other material benefits for themselves, their family, or their friends.”
• Gandhi published the seven social sins in Young India (22 October 1925): politics without principle, wealth without work, pleasure without conscience, knowledge without character, commerce without morality, science without humanity, worship without sacrifice.Seven Social Sins — mkgandhi.org (Bombay Sarvodaya Mandal & Gandhi Research Foundation) ↗“Seven Social Sins Politics without Principle Wealth Without Work Pleasure Without Conscience Knowledge without Character Commerce without Morality Science without Humanity Worship without Sacrifice - Young India, 22-10-1925”
• Gandhi, introduction to Anasaktiyoga, his rendering of the Gita: the Gita's unmistakable teaching is to do one's allotted work but renounce its fruit; he who gives up action falls, he who gives up only the reward rises.M.K. Gandhi, Anasakti Yoga (introduction to his rendering of the Gita), Selected Writings of Mahatma Gandhi, mkgandhi.org ↗“The Gita says: 'Do your allotted work but renounce its fruit - be detached and work - have no desire for reward and work.' This is the unmistakable teaching of the Gita. He who gives up action falls. He who gives up only the reward rises.”

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• ASCE Code of Ethics: engineers must first and foremost protect the health, safety and welfare of the public, a duty (1a) that takes precedence over all other responsibilities.Code of Ethics — American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) ↗“There is no priority of responsibilities within a given stakeholder group with the exception that 1a. takes precedence over all other responsibilities. 1 1. Society Engineers: a. first and foremost, protect the health, safety, and welfare of the public; b. enhance the quality of life for humanity; c. express professional opinions truthfully and only when founded on adequate knowledge and honest conviction;”
• The Rogers Commission found the decision to launch Challenger flawed: decision-makers did not know of the contractor's written recommendation against launch below 53 degrees Fahrenheit or the engineers' continuing opposition after management reversed its position.Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident (Rogers Commission), Vol. 1, Ch. V — NASA History Office ↗“The decision to launch the Challenger was flawed. Those who made that decision were unaware of the recent history of problems concerning the O-rings and the joint and were unaware of the initial written recommendation of the contractor advising against the launch at temperatures below 53 degrees Fahrenheit and the continuing opposition of the engineers at Thiokol after the management reversed its position.”
• Testimony recorded by the Rogers Commission: a Thiokol manager was asked to take off his engineering hat and put on his management hat before the launch decision.Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident (Rogers Commission), Vol. 1, Ch. V — NASA History Office ↗“Mr. Mason said we have to make a management decision. He turned to Bob Lund and asked him to take off his engineering hat and put on his management hat. From this point on, management formulated the points to base their decision on.”

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• The Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan package announced on 26 March 2020 provided an insurance cover of Rs 50 lakh per health worker fighting COVID-19.Finance Minister announces Rs 1.70 Lakh Crore relief package under Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana, PIB, 26 March 2020 ↗“Insurance cover of Rs 50 Lakh per health worker fighting COVID-19 to be provided under Insurance Scheme”
• The Epidemic Diseases (Amendment) Ordinance, 2020 made violence against healthcare personnel during an epidemic a cognizable, non-bailable offence, punishable with three months to five years' imprisonment.Promulgation of an Ordinance to amend the Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897 in the light of the pandemic situation of COVID-19, PIB, 22 April 2020 ↗“The amendment makes acts of violence cognizable and non-bailable offences. Commission or abetment of such acts of violence shall be punished with imprisonment for a term of three months to five years”
• Parmanand Katara v. Union of India (28 August 1989): under Article 21 the State must preserve life, and every doctor has a professional obligation to extend services to protect life.Pt. Parmanand Katara v. Union of India & Ors., Supreme Court of India, judgment of 28 August 1989 (Indian Kanoon) ↗“DATE OF JUDGMENT28/08/1989 BENCH: MISRA RANGNATH BENCH: MISRA RANGNATH OZA, G.L. (J) CITATION: 1989 AIR 2039 1989 SCR (3) 997 1989 SCC (4) 286 JT 1989 (3) 496 1989 SCALE (2)380 ACT: Constitution of India, 1950: Article 21-- Obligation on the State to preserve life--Every doctor has professional obligation to extend services to protect life”
• Parmanand Katara: every doctor, at a government hospital or otherwise, has the professional obligation to extend services to protect life, and no law or State action can delay that paramount obligation.Pt. Parmanand Katara v. Union of India & Ors., Supreme Court of India, judgment of 28 August 1989 (Indian Kanoon) ↗“(4) Every doctor whether at a Government hospital or otherwise has the professional obligation to extend his services with due expertise for protecting life. [1006A] (5) No law or State action can intervene to avoid/delay the discharge of the paramount obligation cast upon members of the medical profession.”
• Kant's Humanity Formula: never treat humanity, in oneself or in others, as a means only but always as an end in itself.Kant's Moral Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“6. The Humanity Formula Most philosophers who find Kant’s views attractive find them so because of the Humanity Formulation of the CI. This formulation states that we should never act in such a way that we treat humanity, whether in ourselves or in others, as a means only but always as an end in itself.”
• WHO, Guidance for managing ethical issues in infectious disease outbreaks (2016), section 13 on frontline workers: once a worker takes on heightened risk, society has a reciprocal obligation to provide necessary support.WHO, Guidance for managing ethical issues in infectious disease outbreaks (2016), section 13, Frontline response workers' rights and obligations (WHO document; copy hosted by AIDS Data Hub, as WHO's IRIS refuses scripted fetches) ↗“Regardless of whether a particular individual has a pre-existing duty to assume heightened risks during an infectious disease outbreak, once a worker has taken on these risks, society has a reciprocal obligation to provide necessary support.”
• WHO (2016), section 13: even workers who have a duty to work during an outbreak have a duty to assume risk that is not unlimited.WHO, Guidance for managing ethical issues in infectious disease outbreaks (2016), section 13, Frontline response workers' rights and obligations (WHO document; copy hosted by AIDS Data Hub, as WHO's IRIS refuses scripted fetches) ↗“some workers may have a duty to work during an infectious disease outbreak. However, even for these individuals, the duty to assume risk is not unlimited.”

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• The Consumer Protection Act, 2019 (in force from 20 July 2020) created the Central Consumer Protection Authority, which can investigate violations of consumer rights, order recall of unsafe goods and prosecute.Consumer Protection Act, 2019 comes into force from today, PIB, 20 July 2020 ↗“The CCPA will be empowered to conduct investigations into violations of consumer rights and institute complaints / prosecution, order recall of unsafe goods and services”
• Food Safety and Standards Act, section 28: a food business operator who believes its food is not compliant must immediately initiate procedures to withdraw it.Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 — Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) ↗“28. Food recall procedures. (1) If a food business operator considers or has reasons to believe that a food which he has processed, manufactured or distributed is not in compliance with this Act, or the rules or regulations, made thereunder, he shall immediately initiate procedures to withdraw the food in question”
• Food Safety and Standards Act, section 32: a licence may be suspended, then cancelled, for non-compliance with an improvement notice, and suspended forthwith in the interest of public health.Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 — Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) ↗“(2) If the food business operator fails to comply with an improvement notice, his licence may be suspended. (3) If the food business operator still fails to comply with the improvement notice, the Designated Officer may, after giving the licensee an opportunity to show cause, cancel the licence granted to him: Provided that the Designated Officer may suspend any licence forthwith in the interest of public health”
• Food Safety and Standards Act, section 59: selling unsafe food is punishable; where no injury results, with imprisonment of up to six months (and fine).Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 — Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) ↗“59. Punishment for unsafe food. Any person who, whether by himself or by any other person on his behalf, manufactures for sale or stores or sells or distributes or imports any article of food for human consumption which is unsafe, shall be punishable,– (i) where such failure or contravention does not result in injury, with imprisonment for a term which may extend to six months”
• Gandhi published the seven social sins, including commerce without morality, in Young India (22 October 1925).Seven Social Sins — mkgandhi.org (Bombay Sarvodaya Mandal & Gandhi Research Foundation) ↗“Seven Social Sins Politics without Principle Wealth Without Work Pleasure Without Conscience Knowledge without Character Commerce without Morality Science without Humanity Worship without Sacrifice - Young India, 22-10-1925”
• Kant's first formulation of the categorical imperative: act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law.Kant's Moral Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“Kant’s first formulation of the CI states that you are to “act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law” (G 4:421).”

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• WHO: an estimated 12 billion working days are lost every year to depression and anxiety, costing US$ 1 trillion a year in lost productivity.Mental health at work — WHO fact sheet ↗“Globally, an estimated 12 billion working days are lost every year to depression and anxiety at a cost of US$ 1 trillion per year in lost productivity.”
• WHO recommends manager training for mental health, so managers can recognise and respond to supervisees experiencing emotional distress.Mental health at work — WHO fact sheet ↗“To protect mental health, WHO recommends: manager training for mental health , which helps managers recognize and respond to supervisees experiencing emotional distress; builds interpersonal skills like open communication and active listening;”
• Tele-MANAS, the National Tele Mental Health Programme, was launched on 10 October 2022 as a free 24x7 toll-free helpline (14416) offering tele-counselling.Advancing India's Mental Healthcare and Well-Being — PIB backgrounder, Budget 2026-27 series (February 2026) ↗“National Tele Mental Health Programme (Tele -MANAS) 12 • Launched on October 10, 2022, as a 24x7 toll -free helpline (14416 or 1 -800-891-4416). • Provides free tele -counseling for mental health”
• Nolan principle of leadership: holders of public office should exhibit the principles in their own behaviour, treat others with respect and challenge poor behaviour.The Seven Principles of Public Life — Committee on Standards in Public Life, GOV.UK ↗“1.7 Leadership Holders of public office should exhibit these principles in their own behaviour and treat others with respect. They should actively promote and robustly support the principles and challenge poor behaviour wherever it occurs.”
• iGOT Karmayogi: more than 1.48 crore users and over 4,200 courses across domain, functional and behavioural competencies (PIB, February 2026).PIB — Parliament question: iGOT Karmayogi platform (5 Feb 2026) ↗“As on date, more than 1.48 crore users have been onboarded, and the platform hosts over 4200 courses across domain, functional and behavioural competencies, with more than 7 crore course completions.”

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• The General Financial Rules allow a competent authority to sanction re-appropriation of funds from one primary unit of appropriation to another only within a grant or appropriation, at any time before the financial year closes.General Financial Rules 2017 (updated compilation), rule on Re-appropriation of Funds, hosted by DGMA, Ministry of Defence ↗“re-appropriation of funds from one primary unit of appropriation to another such unit within a grant or appropriation, may be sanctioned by a competent authority at any time before the close of the financial year to which such grant or appropriation relates”
• Rawls's second principle of justice: social and economic inequalities must be to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society (the difference principle).John Rawls — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“They are to be to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society (the difference principle ) ( JF , 42–43).”
• Rule 3(1)(x) and (xii) of the CCS (Conduct) Rules, 1964: responsiveness to the public, particularly the weaker section, and efficient, effective and economical use of public resources.Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964, Rule 3(1), updated to 27 February 2015 — DoPT ↗“(x) maintain responsiveness to the public, particularly to the weaker section; (xi) maintain courtesy and good behaviour with the public; (xii) take decisions solely in public interest and use or cause to use public resources efficiently, effectively and economically;”
• Article 267: the Contingency Fund of India allows advances for unforeseen expenditure pending Parliament's authorisation under Article 115 (supplementary grants) or Article 116.The Constitution of India — Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice (2024 text) ↗“the said Fund shall be placed at the disposal of the President to enable advances to be made by him out of such Fund for the purposes of meeting unforeseen expenditure pending authorisation of such expenditure by Parliament by law under article 115 or article 116.”
• T.S.R. Subramanian v Union of India (Supreme Court, 31 October 2013): civil servants cannot act on oral instructions and must be protected against arbitrary pressure from superiors, the political executive and business.T.S.R. Subramanian & Ors vs Union of India & Ors, Supreme Court, 31 October 2013 — Indian Kanoon ↗“We are of the view that the civil servants cannot function on the basis of verbal or oral instructions, orders, suggestions, proposals, etc. and they must also be protected against wrongful and arbitrary pressure exerted by the administrative superiors, political executive, business and other vested interests.”
• Sardar Patel in the Constituent Assembly (10 October 1949): his Secretary could write a note opposed to his views, and he would never be displeased over a frank expression of opinion.Constituent Assembly Debates, 10 October 1949, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel on the services (debates text as hosted by constitutionofindia.net) ↗“Today my Secretary can write a note opposed to my views. I have given that freedom, to all my Secretaries. I have told them, “If you do not give your honest opinion for fear that it will displease your Minister, please then you had better go. I will bring another Secretary,” I will never be displeased over a frank expression of opinion.”

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• Article 7 of the UN Arms Trade Treaty makes an exporting State assess, before authorising a sale, whether the arms would contribute to or undermine peace and security, or could be used to commit or facilitate a serious violation of international humanitarian law.The Arms Trade Treaty, Article 7 (Export and Export Assessment), United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs ↗“assess the potential that the conventional arms or items: (a) would contribute to or undermine peace and security; (b) could be used to: (i) commit or facilitate a serious violation of international humanitarian law”
• At DefExpo 2020 (Lucknow, 5 February 2020) the Prime Minister noted defence exports of Rs 17,000 crore in the previous two years and set an aim of 5 billion dollars of exports in the next five years.Prime Minister inaugurates DefExpo in Lucknow — PIB, Prime Minister's Office, 5 February 2020 ↗“In the last two years India has exported defence products worth Rs 17000 crores. Now our aim is to increase Defence Exports to 5 Bn Dollars in the next five years”
• India formally joined the Wassenaar Arrangement on export controls for conventional arms and dual-use goods on 8 December 2017.India becomes 42nd WA Participating State, 8 Dec. 2017 — The Wassenaar Arrangement ↗“completed the exchange of letters on 8 December 2017 in Vienna with the 2017 Plenary Chair of the Wassenaar Arrangement, Ambassador Jean-Louis Falconi of France, formalising India’s membership of the Wassenaar Arrangement.”
• Wassenaar participating states seek to ensure that arms transfers do not enhance destabilising capabilities, are not diverted, and do not reach terrorists.About us — The Wassenaar Arrangement ↗“Participating States seek, through their national policies, to ensure that transfers of these items do not contribute to the development or enhancement of military capabilities which undermine these goals, and are not diverted to support such capabilities. The aim is also to prevent the acquisition of these items by terrorists.”
• Gandhi's Young India (22 October 1925) printed seven social sins, among them 'politics without principle' and 'commerce without morality'.Seven Social Sins — mkgandhi.org (Bombay Sarvodaya Mandal & Gandhi Research Foundation) ↗“Seven Social Sins Politics without Principle Wealth Without Work Pleasure Without Conscience Knowledge without Character Commerce without Morality Science without Humanity Worship without Sacrifice - Young India, 22-10-1925”
• Kant's Humanity Formulation of the categorical imperative: never treat humanity, in oneself or others, as a means only, but always as an end in itself.Kant's Moral Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“This formulation states that we should never act in such a way that we treat humanity, whether in ourselves or in others, as a means only but always as an end in itself.”

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• Article 24 of the Constitution: no child below fourteen shall work in a factory or mine or in any other hazardous employment.The Constitution of India — Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice (2024 text) ↗“24. Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc.—No child below the age of fourteen years shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in any other hazardous employment.”
• Article 21A of the Constitution: free and compulsory education for all children aged six to fourteen.The Constitution of India — Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice (2024 text) ↗“21A. Right to education.—The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine.”
• Kant's Humanity Formulation of the categorical imperative: never treat humanity, in oneself or others, as a means only, but always as an end in itself.Kant's Moral Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“This formulation states that we should never act in such a way that we treat humanity, whether in ourselves or in others, as a means only but always as an end in itself.”
• M.C. Mehta v State of Tamil Nadu (Supreme Court, 10 December 1996): the offending employer pays Rs 20,000 for each child employed in violation of the Act, into a Child Labour Rehabilitation-cum-Welfare Fund.M.C. Mehta vs State of Tamil Nadu and Others, Supreme Court, 10 December 1996 — Indian Kanoon ↗“The inspectors appointed under section 17 would see that for each child employed in violation of the provisions of the Act, the concerned employer pays Rs.20,000/- which sum could be deposited in a fund to be known as Child Labour Rehabilitation-cum-Welfare Fund.”
• The Aspirational Districts Programme (January 2018) aims to transform 112 of the most under-developed districts through convergence, collaboration with District Collectors, and competition through monthly delta ranking.Aspirational Districts Programme — NITI Aayog ↗“Launched by the Hon’ble PM in January 2018, the Aspirational Districts Programme (ADP) aims to quickly and effectively transform 112 most under-developed districts across the country. The broad contours of the programme are Convergence (of Central & State Schemes), Collaboration (of Central, State level Nodal Officers & District Collectors), and Competition among districts through monthly delta ranking”
• PIB: the four Labour Codes, including the Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020, were made effective from 21 November 2025, rationalising 29 existing labour laws.PIB, Ministry of Labour & Employment: Government makes the four Labour Codes effective (21 November 2025) ↗“the four Labour Codes - the Code on Wages, 2019, the Industrial Relations Code, 2020, the Code on Social Security, 2020 and the Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020 are being made effective from 21st November 2025 , rationalising 29 existing labour laws.”
• PIB factsheet on the OSH Code, 2020 (22 November 2025): its definition of inter-state migrant workers now covers those employed directly or through a contractor and those who migrate on their own.PIB factsheet: Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions (OSH) Code, 2020 (22 November 2025) ↗“Inter-State Migrant Workermen (ISMW) The definition has been widened to include those employed directly or through contractor and also covers workers who migrate on their own.”

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• The POSH Act itself provides for action against a complaint found to be malicious or knowingly false, so the builder's threat of a false complaint has a legal answer and cannot be a reason to soften the enquiry.Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013, Section 14, hosted by Delhi Police ↗“Where the Internal Committee or the Local Committee, as the case may be, arrives at a conclusion that the allegation against the respondent is malicious or the aggrieved woman or any other person making the complaint has made the complaint knowing it to be false”
• T.S.R. Subramanian v Union of India (Supreme Court, 31 October 2013): civil servants cannot act on oral instructions and must be protected against arbitrary pressure from superiors, the political executive and business.T.S.R. Subramanian & Ors vs Union of India & Ors, Supreme Court, 31 October 2013 — Indian Kanoon ↗“We are of the view that the civil servants cannot function on the basis of verbal or oral instructions, orders, suggestions, proposals, etc. and they must also be protected against wrongful and arbitrary pressure exerted by the administrative superiors, political executive, business and other vested interests.”
• Rule 3(1)(xiii)-(xiv) of the CCS (Conduct) Rules, 1964: declare private interests relating to public duties, resolve conflicts so as to protect the public interest, and accept no obligation that may influence official duties.Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964, Rule 3(1), updated to 27 February 2015 — DoPT ↗“(xiii) declare any private interests relating to his public duties and take steps to resolve any conflicts in a way that protects the public interest; (xiv) not place himself under any financial or other obligations to any individual or organisation which may influence him in the performance of his official duties;”
• A.K. Kraipak v Union of India (Supreme Court, 29 April 1969): it is against all canons of justice to make a man judge in his own cause.A. K. Kraipak & Ors. vs Union of India & Ors., Supreme Court, 29 April 1969 — Indian Kanoon ↗“It is against all canons of justice to make a man judge in his own cause.”
• Nolan principle of Integrity: avoid obligations to those who might influence one's work, take no decision for personal, family or friends' gain, and declare and resolve interests and relationships.The Seven Principles of Public Life — Committee on Standards in Public Life, GOV.UK (31 May 1995) ↗“Holders of public office must avoid placing themselves under any obligation to people or organisations that might try inappropriately to influence them in their work. They should not act or take decisions in order to gain financial or other material benefits for themselves, their family, or their friends. They must declare and resolve any interests and relationships.”
• Gandhi's Young India (22 October 1925) printed seven social sins, among them 'politics without principle' and 'commerce without morality'.Seven Social Sins — mkgandhi.org (Bombay Sarvodaya Mandal & Gandhi Research Foundation) ↗“Seven Social Sins Politics without Principle Wealth Without Work Pleasure Without Conscience Knowledge without Character Commerce without Morality Science without Humanity Worship without Sacrifice - Young India, 22-10-1925”

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• Gandhi's trusteeship formula: a means of transforming the capitalist order into an egalitarian one, giving the owning class a chance to reform itself.Practical Trusteeship Formula (by Pyarelal; final draft approved by Gandhi) — mkgandhi.org ↗“Trusteeship provides a means of transforming the present capitalist order of society into an egalitarian one. It gives no quarter to capitalism, but gives the present owning class a chance of reforming itself.”
• The trusteeship formula permits private ownership only as far as society allows for its welfare, and does not exclude legislative regulation of wealth.Practical Trusteeship Formula (by Pyarelal; final draft approved by Gandhi) — mkgandhi.org ↗“It does not recognize any right of private ownership of property except so far as it may be permitted by society for its own welfare. It does not exclude legislative regulation of the ownership and use of wealth.”
• Section 135(5), Companies Act, 2013: at least 2% of average net profits of the three preceding years on CSR, with preference to the local area where the company operates.Statutory provisions on CSR (Section 135, Companies Act, 2013) — CSR Odisha, Government of Odisha ↗“at least two per cent of the average net profits of the company made during the three immediately preceding financial years, in pursuance of its Corporate Social Responsibility Policy: Provided that the company shall give preference to the local area and areas around it where it operates”
• Gandhi's Young India (22 October 1925) printed seven social sins, among them 'commerce without morality'.Seven Social Sins — mkgandhi.org (Bombay Sarvodaya Mandal & Gandhi Research Foundation) ↗“Seven Social Sins Politics without Principle Wealth Without Work Pleasure Without Conscience Knowledge without Character Commerce without Morality Science without Humanity Worship without Sacrifice - Young India, 22-10-1925”
• The Aspirational Districts Programme works through convergence of Central and State schemes, collaboration with District Collectors, and competition through monthly delta ranking.Aspirational Districts Programme — NITI Aayog ↗“The broad contours of the programme are Convergence (of Central & State Schemes), Collaboration (of Central, State level Nodal Officers & District Collectors), and Competition among districts through monthly delta ranking; all driven by a mass movement.”

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• In its order of 9 June 2020 in the suo motu proceedings on migrant labourers, the Supreme Court recorded the Solicitor General's submission that no fare was being asked from migrant workers for Shramik special trains and that food and water on the journey were provided by the originating State.Supreme Court of India, In Re: Problems and Miseries of Migrant Labourers, Suo Motu WP (C) 6 of 2020, order of 9 June 2020 ↗“for the train travel no fare is being asked from the migrant labourers and the same is borne as per arrangement between originating State and receiving State. He submits that in train journey food and water is provided by the originating State”
• Joan Tronto's four elements of care (attentiveness, responsibility, competence, responsiveness) give a test for a care-giving state.Care Ethics — Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (University of Tennessee at Martin) ↗“These sub-elements are: (1) attentiveness, a proclivity to become aware of need; (2) responsibility, a willingness to respond and take care of need; (3) competence, the skill of providing good and successful care; and (4) responsiveness, consideration of the position of others as they see it”
• Gandhi's talisman: recall the face of the poorest and weakest person and ask whether the step will be of use to them.Gandhi's Talisman — mkgandhi.org (source: Mahatma Gandhi: The Last Phase, Vol. II, 1958, p. 65) ↗“Recall the face of the poorest and the weakest man [woman] whom you may have seen, and ask yourself, if the step you contemplate is going to be of any use to him [her].”
• PM Garib Kalyan package (26 March 2020): 80 crore poor people to get 5 kg wheat or rice and 1 kg pulses free every month for three months.Finance Minister announces Rs 1.70 lakh crore relief package under PM Garib Kalyan Yojana — PIB, Ministry of Finance, 26 March 2020 ↗“80 crore poor people will to get 5 kg wheat or rice and 1 kg of preferred pulses for free every month for the next three months”
• The Supreme Court (9 June 2020) directed States to record returning migrants' details and skills at village, block and district level and to set up counselling centres on schemes and jobs.In Re: Problems and Miseries of Migrant Labourers, Suo Motu W.P.(C) No. 6 of 2020, order of 9 June 2020 — Supreme Court of India ↗“The details of migrant workers, nature of their skill, place of their earlier employment be maintained in prescribed proforma to be formulated by the concerned State at village level, block level and the district level so that necessary helps can be extended by the State authorities and district authorities to these migrant labourers.”
• One Nation One Ration Card: national portability of ration cards enabled in a cluster of 24 States/UTs from 1 August 2020, covering about 65 crore NFSA beneficiaries.One Nation One Ration Card: journey so far and journey ahead — PIB, Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution, 19 August 2020 ↗“Presently, the facility of national portability of ration cards under “One Nation One Ration Card plan” is seamlessly enabled in an integrated cluster of 24 States/UTs w.e.f. August 1, 2020, covering approx. 65 Crore beneficiaries (80% of total NFSA population)”

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• Section 51 of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 punishes obstructing a government officer in the discharge of functions under the Act with up to one year's imprisonment, or two years if lives are lost or endangered.The Disaster Management Act, 2005 — copy hosted by Meghalaya Police (Government of Meghalaya) ↗“shall on conviction be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to one year or with fine, or with both, and if such obstruction or refusal to comply with directions results in loss of lives or imminent danger thereof, shall on conviction be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to two years.”
• Section 44 of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 constitutes the National Disaster Response Force for specialist response to a threatening disaster situation or disaster.The Disaster Management Act, 2005 — copy hosted by Meghalaya Police (Government of Meghalaya) ↗“There shall be constituted a National Disaster Response Force for the purpose of specialist response to a threatening disaster situation or disaster.”
• The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction was adopted on 18 March 2015; it requires all-of-society engagement and partnership.What is the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction? — UNDRR ↗“The Sendai Framework was adopted on 18 March 2015. Its goal is to prevent new and reduce existing disaster risk . This requires an all-of-society engagement and partnership.”
• Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book II: with regard to fear and confidence, courage is the mean; excess of confidence is rashness and excess of fear is cowardice.Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book II (W. D. Ross translation) — The Internet Classics Archive, MIT ↗“With regard to feelings of fear and confidence courage is the mean; of the people who exceed, he who exceeds in fearlessness has no name (many of the states have no name), while the man who exceeds in confidence is rash, and he who exceeds in fear and falls short in confidence is a coward.”

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• Section 17A (2018) bars any inquiry or investigation into a public servant's official recommendation or decision without prior approval, but not trap cases.Section 17A, Prevention of Corruption (Amendment) Act, 2018 — Gazette text hosted by the Punjab Vigilance Bureau ↗“No police officer shall conduct any enquiry or inquiry or investigation into any offence alleged to have been committed by a public servant under this Act, where the alleged offence is relatable to any recommendation made or decision taken by such public servant in discharge of his official functions or duties, without the previous approval”
• The 2018 amendment replaced section 13(1), so criminal misconduct now covers only misappropriation and intentional illicit enrichment, not decisions without personal gain.Prevention of Corruption (Amendment) Bill, as passed by both Houses, July 2018 — PRS copy ↗“A public servant is said to commit the offence of criminal misconduct,— (a) if he dishonestly or fraudulently misappropriates or otherwise converts for his own use any property entrusted to him or any property under his control as a public servant or allows any other person so to do; or (b) if he intentionally enriches himself illicitly during the period of his office.”
• Kant: a good will is good in itself, not because of the effects it may or may not produce; it would still 'shine like a jewel' even if powerless to achieve its aims (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).Kant's Moral Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“Thus, Kant points out that a good will must then also be good in itself and not in virtue of its relationship to other things such as the agent’s own happiness, overall welfare or any other effects it may or may not produce”
• The Prevention of Corruption (Amendment) Act, 2018 asks the sanctioning authority to endeavour to decide a proposal to prosecute a public servant within three months of receipt.The Prevention of Corruption (Amendment) Act, 2018, as passed by both Houses — PRS Legislative Research ↗“Provided also that the appropriate Government or any comptent authority shall, after the receipt of the proposal requiring sanction for prosecution of a public servant under this sub-section, endeavour to convey the decision on such proposal within a period of three months from the date of its receipt:”

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• Kant's Humanity Formula: never treat humanity, in oneself or in others, as a means only but always as an end in itself (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).Kant's Moral Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“This formulation states that we should never act in such a way that we treat humanity, whether in ourselves or in others, as a means only but always as an end in itself.”
• Section 19 of the POSH Act, 2013 makes it the employer's duty to provide a safe working environment and to display the penal consequences of sexual harassment.Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 — Act and Rules, hosted by Delhi Police ↗“19. Duties of employer.— Every employer shall— (a) provide a safe working environment at the workplace with shall include safety from the persons coming into contact at the workplace; (b) display at any conspicuous place in the workplace, the penal consequences of sexual harassments;”
• Section 14 of the POSH Act, 2013 allows action where the Internal Committee finds a complaint malicious or knowingly false, a safeguard for the accused.Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 — Act and Rules, hosted by Delhi Police ↗“Where the Internal Committee or the Local Committee, as the case may be, arrives at a conclusion that the allegation against the respondent is malicious or the aggrieved woman or any other person making the complaint has made the complaint knowing it to be false”
• Section 12 of the POSH Act, 2013: during an inquiry, on the woman's written request, the Internal Committee may recommend transfer of the woman or the respondent, or leave for her of up to three months.Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 — Act and Rules, hosted by Delhi Police ↗“During the pendency of an inquiry on a written request made by the aggrieved woman, the Internal Committee or the local Committee, as the case may be, may recommend to the employer to— (a) transfer the aggrieved woman or the respondent to any other workplace; or (b) grant leave to the aggrieved woman up to a period of three months;”
• Section 4 of the POSH Act, 2013: the Internal Committee must include one member from an NGO or association committed to the cause of women, or a person familiar with sexual harassment issues.Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 — Act and Rules, hosted by Delhi Police ↗“(c) one member from amongst non-governmental organisations or associations committed to the cause of women or a person familiar with the issues relating to sexual harassment:”

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• Sardar Patel in the Constituent Assembly, 10 October 1949: without a good all-India service with the independence to speak out its mind and a sense of security, India would not remain united.Constituent Assembly Debates, 10 October 1949 (Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel) — transcript at constitutionofindia.net (Centre for Law and Policy Research) ↗“The Union will go-you will not have a united India, if you have not. a good all-India service which has the independence to speak out its mind, which has a sense of security that you will stand by your word”
• Article 311(1): no civil servant of the Union or a State shall be dismissed or removed by an authority subordinate to the one that appointed him.The Constitution of India (as on 1 May 2024), Article 311 — Legislative Department ↗“No person who is a member of a civil service of the Union or an all-India service or a civil service of a State or holds a civil post under the Union or a State shall be dismissed or removed by an authority subordinate to that by which he was appointed.”
• Rule 3(1A) of the All India Services (Conduct) Rules, inserted in 2014, lists political neutrality among the values every member must maintain, with integrity, merit, impartiality, accountability and responsiveness to weaker sections.All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1968, Rule 3 as amended (incl. DoPT notification of 6.08.2014) — copy hosted by the High Court of Tripura ↗“Every member of the Service shall maintain:- (i) high ethical standards, integrity and honesty; (ii) political neutrality; (iii) promoting of the principles of merit, fairness and impartiality in the discharge of duties; (iv) accountability and transparency; (v) responsiveness to the public, particularly to the weaker section; (vi) courtesy and good behavior with the public.”
• Supreme Court, Prakash Singh v. Union of India (22 September 2006): every State must constitute a State Security Commission so that the State Government does not exercise unwarranted influence or pressure on the State police.Prakash Singh & Ors v. Union of India & Ors, Supreme Court, 22 September 2006 — Indian Kanoon ↗“The State Governments are directed to constitute a State Security Commission in every State to ensure that the State Government does not exercise unwarranted influence or pressure on the State police”
• Prakash Singh (2006): the Superintendent of Police in charge of a district and the Station House Officer of a police station shall have a prescribed minimum tenure of two years.Prakash Singh & Ors v. Union of India & Ors, Supreme Court, 22 September 2006 — Indian Kanoon ↗“Superintendent of Police in-charge district and Station House Officer in-charge of a Police Station shall also have a prescribed minimum tenure of two years”

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• Narcotics worth Rs 16,914 crore were seized in India in 2024, the highest recorded since independence (PIB, MHA, January 2025).PIB — Union Home Minister chairs regional conference on 'Drug Trafficking and National Security' (MHA, 11 January 2025) ↗“Narcotics worth Rs. 16,914 crore were seized in 2024, the highest recorded since independence”
• MHA (January 2025): financial investigation, including seizure of linked property, should accompany every major drug case, and States should hold district-level NCORD coordination meetings.PIB — Union Home Minister chairs regional conference on 'Drug Trafficking and National Security' (MHA, 11 January 2025) ↗“including seizing properties linked to illicit activities. He stated that no major case should be concluded without a thorough financial investigation. Union Home Minister Shri Amit Shah emphasized that to ensure the success of the Whole of Government Approach, NCORD meetings must be conducted with greater vigilance, increased frequency, and a focus on achieving tangible results with full sensitivity. He urged all states to hold district-level NCORD meetings”
• Nasha Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan was launched on 15 August 2020 by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment in 272 most vulnerable districts, and now covers all districts (PIB, August 2025).Funds for Nasha Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan — PIB, Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment, 12 August 2025 ↗“Nasha Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan (NMBA) was launched on 15 th August 2020 by Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment in 272 identified most vulnerable districts and now it has been extended to all districts across the country.”

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• Mission Karmayogi (NPCSCB), approved by the Cabinet on 2 September 2020, provides for a Capacity Building Commission to harmonise training standards across Central Training Institutions.Cabinet approves Mission Karmayogi, National Programme for Civil Services Capacity Building — PMINDIA, 2 September 2020 ↗“Capacity Building Commission to harmonize training standards, create shared faculty and resources, and have supervisory role over all Central Training Institutions”
• Kautilya's Arthashastra: just as one cannot tell whether a fish moving under water is drinking, one cannot detect government servants taking money.Kautilya's Arthashastra, R. Shamasastry's English translation (Internet Archive) ↗“Just as fish moving under water cannot possibly be found out either as drinking or not drinking water, so government servants employed in the government work cannot be found out (while) taking money (for themselves).”
• Rule 3(2B) of the AIS (Conduct) Rules (2014): take decisions solely in public interest, use public resources efficiently and economically, and declare private interests and resolve conflicts so as to protect the public interest.All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1968, Rule 3 as amended (incl. DoPT notification of 6.08.2014) — copy hosted by the High Court of Tripura ↗“(iii) maintain integrity in public service; (iv) take decisions solely in public interest and use or cause to use public resources efficiently, effectively and economically; (v) declare any private interests relating to his public duties and take steps to resolve any conflicts in a way that protects the public interest;”
• The 2nd ARC's 4th Report (Ethics in Governance) recommended that public service values be defined for all public servants and that whistle-blowers be protected, as summarised by Mizoram's personnel department.Presentation on the 2nd ARC and its recommendations (4th Report: Ethics in Governance) — Department of Personnel & Administrative Reforms, Government of Mizoram ↗“Office of Ethics Commissioner suggested (A-nn) Office of Profit (A-nn) Public Service Values for all public servants should be defined (A) National Judicial Council (A) Sanction for prosecution (NA) Protection to whistle-blowers (A)”
• OECD Principles for Managing Ethics in the Public Service (principle 3, ethical guidance): training facilitates ethics awareness and can develop skills for ethical analysis and moral reasoning; impartial advice helps public servants confront and resolve ethical tensions.OECD Council Recommendation, Annex: Principles for Managing Ethics in the Public Service, principle 3 — OECD Legal Instruments ↗“Training facilitates ethics awareness and can develop essential skills for ethical analysis and moral reasoning. Impartial advice can help create an environment in which public servants are more willing to confront and resolve ethical tensions and problems.”

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• Rashtriya Arogya Nidhi, a Ministry of Health and Family Welfare fund, gives financial assistance to patients below the poverty line suffering from major life-threatening diseases for treatment at government super-speciality and other government hospitals: a lawful channel for a needy patient who falls outside a scheme's criteria.Rashtriya Arogya Nidhi (RAN), Arthapedia, Indian Economic Service (ies.gov.in) ↗“provides financial assistance to patients who are living below poverty line and suffering from major life threatening diseases related to inter-alia, heart, liver, kidney and for cancer, etc., to receive medical treatment at any of the 12 super specialty Government hospitals / institutes or other Government hospitals”
• Article 41 of the Constitution (Directive Principle): the State shall, within the limits of its economic capacity, make effective provision for public assistance in old age, sickness and undeserved want.The Constitution of India (Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice) ↗“The State shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and development, make effective provision for securing the right to work, to education and to public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement, and in other cases of undeserved want.”
• AB PM-JAY provides a health cover of Rs 5 lakh per family per year for secondary and tertiary hospitalisation (PIB, September 2024).Cabinet approves health coverage to all senior citizens aged 70 and above irrespective of income under AB PM-JAY — PIB, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, 11 September 2024 ↗“AB PM-JAY is the world’s largest publicly funded health assurance scheme which provides health cover of Rs. 5 lakh per family per year for secondary and tertiary care hospitalization”
• In September 2024 the Union Cabinet approved health coverage under AB PM-JAY for all senior citizens aged 70 and above, irrespective of income.Cabinet approves health coverage to all senior citizens aged 70 and above irrespective of income under AB PM-JAY — PIB, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, 11 September 2024 ↗“The Union Cabinet, chaired by the Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi, has approved the health coverage to all the senior citizens aged 70 years and above irrespective of income under the flagship scheme Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB PM-JAY).”
• Rule 3(1)(xvii)-(xviii) of the CCS (Conduct) Rules, as amended: act with fairness and impartiality, not discriminating against the poor and under-privileged, and refrain from anything contrary to law, rules and established practices.Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964 (updated) — Department of Personnel and Training ↗“(xvii) act with fairness and impartiality and not discriminate against anyone, particularly the poor and the under-privileged sections of society; (xviii) refrain from doing anything which is or may be contrary to any law, rules, regulations and established practices;”
• Rawls's difference principle: social and economic inequalities are to be to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society.John Rawls — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“They are to be to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society (the difference principle )”

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• Rule 18(2) of the Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964 bars a government servant from acquiring or disposing of immovable property, even in a family member's name, without the previous knowledge of the prescribed authority; a proviso requires prior sanction if the transaction is with a person having official dealings with him.Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964 (updated 27 February 2015), Department of Personnel and Training ↗“No Government servant shall, except with the previous knowledge of the prescribed authority, acquire or dispose of any immovable property by lease, mortgage, purchase, sale, gift or otherwise either in his own name or in the name of any member of his family”
• Rule 3(1)(xv) of the CCS (Conduct) Rules, as amended: a government servant shall not misuse his position or take decisions to derive financial or material benefits for himself, his family or his friends.Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964 (updated) — Department of Personnel and Training ↗“(xv) not misuse his position as civil servant and not take decisions in order to derive financial or material benefits for himself, his family or his friends;”
• Rule 3(2)(iii)-(iv) of the CCS (Conduct) Rules: directions of superiors shall ordinarily be in writing; oral directions must be confirmed in writing, and the officer receiving one shall seek written confirmation.Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964 (updated) — Department of Personnel and Training ↗“(iii) The direction of the official superior shall ordinarily be in writing. Oral direction to subordinates shall be avoided, as far as possible. Where the issue of oral direction becomes unavoidable, the official superior shall confirm it in writing immediately thereafter; (iv) A Government servant who has received oral direction from his official superior shall seek confirmation of the same in writing as early as possible”
• Supreme Court, T.S.R. Subramanian v. Union of India (31 October 2013): civil servants cannot function on oral instructions and must be protected against arbitrary pressure from superiors, the political executive and vested interests.T.S.R. Subramanian v. Union of India, Supreme Court, 31 October 2013 — Indian Kanoon ↗“civil servants cannot function on the basis of verbal or oral instructions, orders, suggestions, proposals, etc. and they must also be protected against wrongful and arbitrary pressure exerted by the administrative superiors, political executive, business and other vested interests.”
• The 2nd ARC (Box 3.1) recalls IOC officer Manjunath Shanmugam, shot dead on 19 November 2005 after refusing bribes in his fight against fuel adulteration, and NHAI official Satyendra Dubey, who exposed corruption in road construction and was found dead on 27 November 2003.Second Administrative Reforms Commission, 4th Report: Ethics in Governance — DARPG (archived copy) ↗“He refused bribes and ignored threats to his life in his fight against adulteration by the petrol pump owners. He paid the price. He was shot dead on 19th November, 2005 allegedly at the behest of corrupt petrol pump owners. Satyendra Dubey, working with the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI), exposed the rampant corruption in construction of roads. He was also found dead on 27th November, 2003.”
• Gandhi's Seven Social Sins (Young India, 1925), quoted in the 2nd ARC report, begin with politics without principles.Second Administrative Reforms Commission, 4th Report: Ethics in Governance — DARPG (archived copy) ↗“The Seven Social Sins, as quoted by Mahatma Gandhi in “Young India,” 1925 1. Politics without principles 2. Wealth without work 3. Leisure without conscience.”
• 2nd ARC, 4th Report (para 2.4.5): dedicated units in the offices of the Prime Minister and the Chief Ministers should monitor the observance of ministers' Code of Ethics and Code of Conduct, and receive public complaints of violations.Second Administrative Reforms Commission, 4th Report: Ethics in Governance, para 2.4.5 — DARPG (archived copy) ↗“Dedicated units should be set up in the offices of the Prime Minister and the Chief Ministers to monitor the observance of the Code of Ethics and the Code of Conduct. The unit should also be empowered to receive public complaints regarding violation of the Code of Conduct.”
• 2nd ARC, 4th Report: a Code of Ethics and Code of Conduct for Ministers should require that no conflict arises, or appears to arise, between their public duties and their private interests.Second Administrative Reforms Commission, 4th Report: Ethics in Governance, para 2.4 (Ethical Framework for Ministers) — DARPG (archived copy) ↗“Ministers must ensure that no conflict arises, or appears to arise, between their public duties and their private interests;”
• Rule 16(3) of the All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1968: no member of the Service shall, without the previous knowledge of the Government, acquire immovable property in his own name or in the name of a family member (the AIS counterpart of CCS Rule 18(2)).All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1968, Rule 16 — copy hosted by the High Court of Tripura ↗“No member of the Service shall, except with the previous knowledge of the Government,— (a) acquire any immovable property by lease, mortgage, purchase, gift or otherwise, either in his own name or in the name of any member of his family”

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• Article 47 of the Constitution, a Directive Principle, asks the State to endeavour to bring about prohibition of intoxicating drinks except for medicinal purposes, as part of its duty to improve public health; prohibition is therefore a constitutional aim, not merely a police matter.The Constitution of India (2024 edition), Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice ↗“the State shall endeavour to bring about prohibition of the consumption except for medicinal purposes of intoxicating drinks and of drugs which are injurious to health.”
• Second ARC, 5th Report (Public Order): community policing success stories include Maithri in Andhra Pradesh, Friends of Police in Tamil Nadu and Mohalla Committees in Bhiwandi, Maharashtra.Second Administrative Reforms Commission, 5th Report: Public Order, para 5.15 Community Policing — DARPG (archived copy) ↗“Many states in India have taken up community policing in some form or the other. Be it ‘Maithri’ in Andhra Pradesh, ‘Friends of Police’ in Tamil Nadu, Mohalla Committees in Bhiwandi (Maharashtra), there have been several success stories from all over the country.”
• Second ARC, 5th Report: the principle of community policing is that a policeman is a citizen with uniform and a citizen is a policeman without uniform.Second Administrative Reforms Commission, 5th Report: Public Order, para 5.15 Community Policing — DARPG (archived copy) ↗“The basic principle underlying community policing is that ‘a policeman is a citizen with uniform and a citizen is a policeman without uniform’.”
• Ministry of Home Affairs, Guidelines on Communal Harmony: women help defuse communal tensions, and their fair representation in Peace Committees can help contain riots.Guidelines on Communal Harmony — Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India ↗“Women, who constitute a very vulnerable group in the context of communal tensions /riots, play an effective role in helping to defuse communal tensions and to prevent riots. Their fair representation in Peace Committees could help in containing riot situation.”
• Bihar's Satat Jeevikoparjan Yojana, approved on 26 April 2018 with Rs 840 crore for three years, gives income-generating assets to ultra-poor households traditionally engaged in making, transporting or selling country liquor or toddy before prohibition (April 2016).JEEViKA (Bihar Rural Livelihoods Promotion Society, Government of Bihar), 43rd Quarterly Progress Report, April–June 2018 ↗“Government of Bihar on 26 April, 2018, with a budgetary outlay of INR 840 crore for 3 years (2018- 19 to 2020-21). Objective of the scheme is to provide sustainable income generating assets particularly to those ultra-poor household which were traditionally engaged in production, transportation and sale of country liquor / toddy before the imposition of prohibition in the state in April 2016.”

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• Sterlite, Thoothukudi: the plant has been closed since May 2018 after 13 people were killed in police firing on a protest against alleged pollution.Supreme Court dismisses Vedanta's plea against closure of copper smelting plant in Thoothukudi — The Tribune (national newspaper), 29 February 2024 ↗“The plant has been closed since May 2018 after 13 people were killed as police opened fire to quell a protest over alleged pollution caused by it.”
• Supreme Court (29 February 2024) dismissed Vedanta's plea against the Sterlite closure, calling the health and welfare of residents a matter of utmost concern.Supreme Court dismisses Vedanta's plea against closure of copper smelting plant in Thoothukudi — The Tribune (national newspaper), 29 February 2024 ↗“A bench headed by Chief Justice D Y Chandrachud said the health and welfare of residents of the area is a matter of “utmost concern” and the state government is responsible for preserving and protecting their concerns.”
• Supreme Court, M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (20 December 1986, after the oleum gas leak from a Shriram unit in Delhi): an enterprise in a hazardous activity is absolutely liable for harm caused, even without negligence.M.C. Mehta v. Union of India, Supreme Court, 20 December 1986 — Indian Kanoon ↗“the enterprise must be absolutely liable to compensate for such harm irrespective of the fact that the enterprise had taken all reasonable care and that the harm occurred without any negligence on its part.”
• Supreme Court, Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India (28 August 1996): the polluter pays principle covers compensation to victims and the cost of restoring the damaged environment.Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India, Supreme Court, 28 August 1996 — Indian Kanoon ↗“The "Polluter Pays" principle as interpreted by this Court means that the absolute liability for harm to the environment extends not only to compensate the victims of pollution but also the cost of restoring the environmental degradation.”

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• Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book V (ch. 10): equity is a correction of law where it is defective owing to its universality.Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book V, tr. W.D. Ross — The Internet Classics Archive (MIT) ↗“Hence the equitable is just, and better than one kind of justice-not better than absolute justice but better than the error that arises from the absoluteness of the statement. And this is the nature of the equitable, a correction of law where it is defective owing to its universality.”
• Section 273B of the Income-tax Act, 1961: no penalty is imposable for the failures listed if the person proves there was reasonable cause for the failure.Section 273B in The Income Tax Act, 1961 — Indian Kanoon ↗“no penalty shall be imposable on the person or the assessee, as the case may be, for any failure referred to in the said provisions if he proves that there was reasonable cause for the said failure.”
• Kautilya's Arthashastra: revenue, like fruit, is to be collected when ripe, never unripe, lest its source be injured.Kautilya's Arthashastra, tr. R. Shamasastry — Internet Archive full text ↗“Just as fruits are gathered from a garden as often as they become ripe, so revenue shall be collected as often as it becomes ripe. Collection of revenue or of fruits, when unripe, shall never be carried on, lest their source may be injured, causing immense trouble.”
• Article 14 of the Constitution: the State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws.The Constitution of India (Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice) ↗“Equality before law.—The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.”

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• Justice S.K. Kaul's opinion in the 2017 privacy ruling, reproduced in the Supreme Court's Aadhaar judgment of 26 September 2018, notes that technology has made surveillance possible in ways that are unimaginable, and refers to Snowden's disclosures.Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) v. Union of India (Aadhaar), Writ Petition (Civil) No. 494 of 2012, Supreme Court of India, judgment of 26 September 2018 (reproducing S.K. Kaul, J.) ↗“Surveillance is not new, but technology has permitted surveillance in ways that are unimaginable. Edward Snowden shocked the world with his disclosures about global surveillance.”
• Supreme Court, K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (24 August 2017): any invasion of life or personal liberty must meet the three-fold requirement of legality, need (a legitimate state aim) and proportionality.Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) v. Union of India (privacy), Supreme Court, 24 August 2017 ↗“An invasion of life or personal liberty must meet the three-fold requirement of (i) legality, which postulates the existence of law; (ii) need, defined in terms of a legitimate state aim; and (iii) proportionality which ensures a rational nexus between the objects and the means adopted to achieve them”
• Supreme Court, PUCL v. Union of India (18 December 1996): telephone tapping under Section 5(2) of the Telegraph Act is subject to review by a committee of the Cabinet Secretary, Law Secretary and Telecommunication Secretary.People's Union of Civil Liberties v. Union of India, Supreme Court, 18 December 1996 — Indian Kanoon ↗“There shall be a Review Committee consisting of Cabinet Secretary, the Law Secretary and the Secretary, Telecommunication at the level of the Central Government.”
• Martin Luther King Jr., Letter from Birmingham Jail (1963): one who breaks an unjust law must do so openly, lovingly and with a willingness to accept the penalty.Letter from a Birmingham Jail [King, Jr.], 16 April 1963 — African Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania ↗“One who breaks an unjust law must do so openly, lovingly, and with a willingness to accept the penalty.”
• After Snowden's leaks, President Obama set up an independent panel (August 2013) whose December 2013 report recommended suspending the mass collection of telephone records.Edward Snowden — Encyclopaedia Britannica ↗“Although U.S. Pres. Barack Obama was critical of Snowden’s methods, in August 2013 he announced the creation of an independent panel to examine the U.S. government’s surveillance practices. That panel’s findings, published in December 2013, recommended that the mass collection of telephone records be suspended”
• Snowden did not return to face trial: after over a month in Moscow's Sheremetyevo transit zone he was granted temporary refugee status by Russia.Edward Snowden — Encyclopaedia Britannica ↗“After having spent more than a month in the Sheremetyevo transit zone, Snowden was granted temporary refugee status by Russia, and he left the airport in the company of a WikiLeaks staffer.”

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• Kant's Categorical Imperative, preliminary formulation (Groundwork 4:402): I ought never to act except in such a way that I could also will that my maxim should become a universal law.Kant's Moral Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“This brings Kant to a preliminary formulation of the CI: “I ought never to act except in such a way that I could also will that my maxim should become a universal law” (G 4:402).”
• Madhya Pradesh was the first state to enact a Public Services Guarantee Act (PSGA), in 2010, to eliminate corruption and provide time-bound public services.Public sector delivery mechanisms: Success story of Madhya Pradesh — Grant Thornton India report with MP State Agency for Public Services ↗“MP is the first state in India that enacted the revolutionary PSGA in 2010 to eliminate corruption and facilitate proficient and time-bound public services to common citizens.”
• Nolan principles (UK, 1995), Integrity: holders of public office must avoid placing themselves under any obligation to people or organisations that might try inappropriately to influence them.The Seven Principles of Public Life — Committee on Standards in Public Life, GOV.UK (published 31 May 1995) ↗“Holders of public office must avoid placing themselves under any obligation to people or organisations that might try inappropriately to influence them in their work.”

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• Save Life Foundation (Supreme Court, 30 March 2016) endorsed guidelines under which a bystander or good Samaritan shall not be liable for any civil and criminal liability.Savelife Foundation & Anr v. Union of India & Anr, Supreme Court, 30 March 2016 — Indian Kanoon ↗“(3) The bystander or good Samaritan shall not be liable for any civil and criminal liability. (4) A bystander or good Samaritan, who makes a phone call to inform the police or emergency services for the person lying injured on the road, shall not be compelled to reveal his name and personal details”
• Section 134A of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988: a Good Samaritan who in good faith helps an accident victim or takes him to hospital shall not be liable to any civil or criminal action (LiveLaw report on the 2020 rules).Centre Amends Motor Vehicles Rules For Protection Of 'Good Samaritans' — LiveLaw (legal news), 30 September 2020 ↗“is a person, who in good faith, voluntarily and without expectation of any reward or compensation renders emergency medical or non-medical care or assistance at the scene of an accident to the victim or transports such victim to the hospital. As per the said provision, such a Good Samaritan shall not be liable for any civil or criminal action”
• Care ethics holds that there is moral significance in the fundamental elements of relationships and dependencies in human life.Care Ethics — Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“The moral theory known as “ the ethics of care” implies that there is moral significance in the fundamental elements of relationships and dependencies in human life.”
• PM-RAHAT (PIB, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, 11 March 2026): the scheme was notified on 5 May 2025 under the legal mandate of Section 162 of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.PIB, 11 March 2026: PM RAHAT - Cashless Treatment of Road Accident Victims ↗“In accordance with the legal mandate under Section 162 of the Motor Vehicles (MV) Act, 1988, the “Prime Minister – Road Accident Victims’ Hospitalisation and Assured Treatment (PM-RAHAT) Scheme” has been notified vide S.O. 2015(E) dated 05.05.2025”
• PM-RAHAT: treatment cover up to Rs 1.5 lakh per road-accident victim, for up to 7 days from the date of the accident, on any category of road (PIB, 11 March 2026).PIB, 11 March 2026: PM RAHAT - Cashless Treatment of Road Accident Victims ↗“Treatment cover up to ₹1.5 lakh per victim will be provided, subject to a maximum cap of 7 days from the date of accident , on any category of road.”

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• Employee's Compensation Act, 1923, Section 3(1): the employer's exemption for accidents attributable to drink or drugs applies only to an injury not resulting in death or permanent total disablement.Section 3 in The Employee's Compensation Act, 1923 (Indian Kanoon) ↗“not resulting in death or permanent total disablement caused by an accident which is directly attributable to (i) the employee having been at the time thereof under the influence of drink or drugs”
• Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice, Act IV, Scene 1 (Portia): earthly power is likest God's when mercy seasons justice.William Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice — Project Gutenberg ↗“But mercy is above this sceptred sway, It is enthroned in the hearts of kings, It is an attribute to God himself; And earthly power doth then show likest God’s When mercy seasons justice.”
• The four Labour Codes (Code on Wages 2019; Industrial Relations Code 2020; Code on Social Security 2020; Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code 2020) were brought into force nationally on 21 November 2025, replacing 29 central statutes.India Introduces New Labour Codes: Faithful Implementation Needed — ISAS Insights, Institute of South Asian Studies, National University of Singapore (December 2025) ↗“The government’s November 2025 notifications put the four codes into force nationally on 21 November 2025, with staggered applicability for different provisions and responsibilities for central and state governments to notify rules”
• ISAS on the Labour Codes: the Code on Social Security, 2020 is one of four codes that rationalise and replace 29 central statutes on wages, industrial relations, social security and workplace safety.India Introduces New Labour Codes: Faithful Implementation Needed — ISAS Insights, National University of Singapore (December 2025) ↗“the Code on Social Security, 2020; and the Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020 – rationalise and replace a web of 29 central statutes that governed wages, industrial relations, social security, and workplace safety.”
• PIB (21 November 2025): the four Labour Codes, the Code on Wages, 2019, the Industrial Relations Code, 2020, the Code on Social Security, 2020 and the OSH Code, 2020, were made effective from 21 November 2025, rationalising 29 existing labour laws.PIB, 21 November 2025: Government Makes the Four Labour Codes effective to Simplify and Streamline Labour Laws ↗“the four Labour Codes - the Code on Wages, 2019, the Industrial Relations Code, 2020, the Code on Social Security, 2020 and the Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020 are being made effective from 21st November 2025 , rationalising 29 existing labour laws.”

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• Section 161(2), CrPC 1973: a person examined by the police is bound to answer truly all questions relating to the case, except those that would expose him to a criminal charge.Section 161 in The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (Indian Kanoon) ↗“Such person shall be bound to answer truly all questions relating to such case put to him by officer, other than questions the answers to which would have a tendency to expose him to a criminal charge or to a penalty”
• Save Life Foundation (Supreme Court, 2016): a bystander or good Samaritan who is also an eyewitness is to be examined on a single occasion, with procedures to prevent harassment.Savelife Foundation & Anr v. Union of India & Anr, Supreme Court, 30 March 2016 — Indian Kanoon ↗“(7) In case a bystander or good Samaritan, who has voluntarily stated that he is also an eye-witness to the accident and is required to be examined for the purposes of investigation by the police or during the trial, such bystander or good Samaritan shall be examined on a single occasion”
• Save Life Foundation (2016): the good Samaritan guidelines are without prejudice to the liability of the driver of a motor vehicle in a road accident under Section 134 of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.Savelife Foundation & Anr v. Union of India & Anr, Supreme Court, 30 March 2016 — Indian Kanoon ↗“The above guidelines in relation to protection of bystander or good Samaritan are without prejudice to the liability of the driver of a motor vehicle in the road accident, as specified under section 134 of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988”
• Kant: the duty to refrain from making lying promises is a perfect duty to others, derived from the universal-law formula of the Categorical Imperative.Kant's Moral Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“We will briefly sketch one way of doing so for the perfect duty to others to refrain from making lying promises and the imperfect duty to ourselves to develop our own natural talents.”
• Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023, Section 180 (examination of witnesses by police): a person examined shall be bound to answer truly, as under Section 161 CrPC before it.The Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 (Gazette of India, MHA) ↗“180. (1) Any police officer making an investigation under this Chapter, or any police officer not below such rank as the State Government may, by general or special order, prescribe in this behalf, acting on the requisition of such officer, may examine orally any person supposed to be acquainted with the facts and circumstances of the case. (2) Such person shall be bound to answer truly”

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• An 11-storey apartment tower under construction on the outskirts of Chennai collapsed after heavy rains (reported 5 July 2014), killing mainly labourers; the final death toll was 61.Chennai building collapse rescue ends with 61 dead — The Peninsula (Qatar), 5 July 2014 ↗“Rescue efforts at a building which collapsed last weekend in Chennai wound up yesterday with the final death toll at 61, an official said. The 11-storey apartment tower on the outskirts of Chennai, which was still under construction, came crashing down on Saturday following heavy rains, killing mainly labourers.”
• Supreme Court (National Campaign Committee for Central Legislation on Construction Labour v. Union of India, March 2018): over Rs 37,400 crore had been collected under the Building and Other Construction Workers' Welfare Cess Act, 1996, but only about Rs 9,500 crore used.Supreme Court on construction workers' welfare cess, 19 March 2018 — SCC Online (legal reporter) ↗“under the Building and Other Construction Workers‘ Welfare Cess Act, 1996, more than Rs. 37,400 crores have been collected for the benefit of construction workers, but only about Rs. 9500 crores have been utilized ostensibly for their benefit”
• e-Shram (PIB, August 2026): 31.89 crore registrations; it shares construction workers' data with States and Union Territories for registration with their BOCW welfare boards.5 Years of e-Shram — PIB backgrounder, Ministry of Labour and Employment, 25 August 2026 ↗“It enables sharing of construction workers' data with States and Union Territories. This facilitates their registration with the respective Building and Other Construction Workers (BOCW) Boards.”
• e-Shram total registrations stood at 31.89 crore (as on 18 August 2026).5 Years of e-Shram — PIB backgrounder, Ministry of Labour and Employment, 25 August 2026 ↗“Total registrations: The portal has recorded 31.89 crore registrations.”
• Kant's Humanity Formulation of the Categorical Imperative: never treat humanity, in oneself or in others, as a means only but always as an end in itself.Kant's Moral Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“This formulation states that we should never act in such a way that we treat humanity, whether in ourselves or in others, as a means only but always as an end in itself.”

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• CBSE v. Aditya Bandopadhyay (Supreme Court, 2011): the RTI Act should not become a tool of oppression of honest officials; the nation does not want 75% of the staff of public authorities spending 75% of their time furnishing information.Central Board of Secondary Education v. Aditya Bandopadhyay, Supreme Court, 9 August 2011 — Indian Kanoon ↗“Nor should it be converted into a tool of oppression or intimidation of honest officials striving to do their duty. The nation does not want a scenario where 75% of the staff of public authorities spends 75% of their time in collecting and furnishing information to applicants instead of discharging their regular duties.”
• Right to Information Rules, 2012, Rule 3: an application shall ordinarily not contain more than five hundred words, but no application shall be rejected only on that ground.Right to Information Rules, 2012 (Gazette of India, 31 July 2012) — copy hosted by IIT Guwahati ↗“An application under sub-section (1) of Section 6 of the Act shall be accompanied by a fee of rupees ten and shall ordinarily not contain more than five hundred words, excluding annexures, containing address of the Central Public Information Officer and that of the applicant: Provided that no application shall be rejected only on the ground that it contains more than five hundred words.”

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• The Constitution makes it a fundamental duty of every citizen to protect and improve the natural environment, including rivers.The Constitution of India (as on 1 May 2024), Article 51A(g) — Legislative Department ↗“to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures”
• Discharge of toxic effluent into a river is governed by the Water Act of 1974, the basic law on water pollution, which supports the legal argument against silence.CPCB: Water Pollution (Water Act, 1974) ↗“The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was enacted in 1974 to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution, and for the maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water in the country.”
• Kant's Humanity Formula: never treat humanity, in oneself or in others, as a means only but always as an end in itself.Kant's Moral Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“This formulation states that we should never act in such a way that we treat humanity, whether in ourselves or in others, as a means only but always as an end in itself.”
• The 2nd ARC recommended whistleblower legislation that also covers corporate whistleblowers, and cited Manjunath Shanmugam of Indian Oil, who refused bribes and fought fuel adulteration (Box 3.1).Second Administrative Reforms Commission, 4th Report: Ethics in Governance (DARPG, archived copy) ↗“The legislation should cover corporate whistleblowers unearthing fraud or serious damage to public interest by willful acts of omission or commission. Box 3.1: The Whistleblowers Manjunath Shanmugam working with Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) was a graduate of the Indian Institute of Management, Lucknow. He refused bribes and ignored threats to his life in his fight against adulteration by the petrol pump owners.”
• Companies Act, 2013 (s. 177(9)-(10)): listed companies must establish a vigil mechanism for directors and employees, with safeguards against victimisation.Companies Act, 2013 — Ministry of Corporate Affairs (archived copy) ↗“(9) Every listed company or such class or classes of companies, as may be prescribed, shall establish a vigil mechanism for directors and employees to report genuine concerns in such manner as may be prescribed. (10) The vigil mechanism under sub-section (9) shall provide for adequate safeguards against victimisation of persons who use such mechanism”
• Water Act, 1974, s. 49(1): besides the Board, any person who has given the Board at least sixty days' notice of the offence and of the intention to complain may file a complaint in court.Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, Section 49 — Indian Kanoon (bare Act text) ↗“No court shall take cognizance of any offence under this Act except on a complaint made by— (a) a Board or any officer authorised in this behalf by it; or (b) any person who has given notice of not less than sixty days, in the manner prescribed, of the alleged offence and of his intention to make a complaint, to the Board or officer authorised as aforesaid”

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• Article 39(b) directs State policy toward distributing community resources for the common good, supporting the ethical case for sharing project benefits fairly.The Constitution of India (as on 1 May 2024), Article 39(b) — Legislative Department ↗“the ownership and control of the material resources of the community are so distributed as best to subserve the common good”
• Rawls: the least advantaged are not objects of charity or pity but those to whom reciprocity is owed as a matter of basic justice.John Rawls — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗““The least advantaged are not, if all goes well, the unfortunate and unlucky—objects of our charity and compassion, much less our pity—but those to whom reciprocity is owed as a matter of basic justice” ( JF , 139).”
• RFCTLARR Act, 2013, s. 2(2): acquisition for private companies needs the prior consent of at least 80% of affected families, and for PPP projects at least 70%.Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 — bare Act (High Court of Tripura) ↗“(i) private companies, the prior consent of at least eighty per cent, of those affected families, as defined in sub-clauses (i) and (v) of clause (c) of section 3; and (ii) public private partnership projects, the prior consent of at least seventy per cent. of those affected families”
• RFCTLARR Act, 2013, s. 41: as far as possible no acquisition in Scheduled Areas; where it happens, only as a demonstrable last resort and with prior consent of the gram sabha or panchayat.Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 — bare Act (High Court of Tripura) ↗“(1) As far as possible, no acquisition of land shall be made in the Scheduled Areas. (2) Where such acquisition does take place it shall be done only as a demonstrable last resort. (3) In case of acquisition or alienation of any land in the Scheduled Areas, the prior consent of the concerned Gram Sabha”
• Orissa Mining Corporation v MoEF (Niyamgiri), Supreme Court, 18 April 2013: the gram sabha to decide on the community's claims within three months before the final decision on Stage II forest clearance.Orissa Mining Corporation Ltd vs Ministry of Environment & Forest & Ors, 18 April 2013 — Supreme Court (Indian Kanoon) ↗“We are, therefore, inclined to give a direction to the State of Orissa to place these issues before the Gram Sabha with notice to the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India and the Gram Sabha would take a decision on them within three months”
• RFCTLARR Act, 2013, s. 30(1): the Collector must add a solatium equal to 100% of the compensation amount.Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 — bare Act (High Court of Tripura) ↗“The Collector having determined the total compensation to be paid, shall, to arrive at the final award, impose a “Solatium” amount equivalent to one hundred per cent. of the compensation amount.”
• RFCTLARR Act, 2013, s. 38(1): possession only after compensation is paid within three months, and the monetary part of rehabilitation within six months, of the award.Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 — bare Act (High Court of Tripura) ↗“The Collector shall take possession of land after ensuring that full payment of compensation as well as rehabilitation and resettlement entitlements are paid or tendered to the entitled persons within a period of three months for the compensation and a period of six months for the monetary part of rehabilitation and resettlement entitlements listed in the Second Schedule commencing from the date of the award made under section 30”
• RFCTLARR Act, 2013, Second Schedule, item 4: affected families get a choice of annuity or employment, a job being offered after suitable training and skill development.Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 — bare Act (High Court of Tripura) ↗“Choice of Annuity or Employment The appropriate Government shall ensure that the affected families are provided with the following options: (a) where jobs are created through the project, after providing suitable training and skill development in the required field, make provision for employment”

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• Article 41 places on the State a duty to make provision for public assistance in old age, which supports reading the scheme purposively.The Constitution of India (as on 1 May 2024), Article 41 — Legislative Department ↗“The State shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and development, make effective provision for securing the right to work, to education and to public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement”
• Gandhi's talisman: recall the face of the poorest and most helpless person and ask whether the step you contemplate will be of use to him.The Gandhi Talisman — mkgandhi.org (Bombay Sarvodaya Mandal / Gandhi Research Foundation) ↗“Recall the face of the poorest and the most helpless man whom you may have seen and ask yourself, if the step you contemplate is going to be of any use to him.”
• Kant's Humanity Formula: never treat humanity, in oneself or in others, as a means only but always as an end in itself.Kant's Moral Philosophy — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ↗“This formulation states that we should never act in such a way that we treat humanity, whether in ourselves or in others, as a means only but always as an end in itself.”
• CCS (Conduct) Rules, 1964, Rule 3(1): government servants must maintain responsiveness to the public, particularly to the weaker section.Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964, updated to 27 Feb 2015 — DoPT ↗“(ix) maintain accountability and transparency; (x) maintain responsiveness to the public, particularly to the weaker section; (xi) maintain courtesy and good behaviour with the public;”
• The 2nd ARC's 10th Report (para 16.11) lists empathy for the vulnerable and weaker sections among core civil service values.Second Administrative Reforms Commission, 10th Report: Refurbishing of Personnel Administration (DARPG, archived copy) ↗“b. Impartiality and non-partisanship c. Objectivity d. Commitment to the citizens’ concerns and public good e. Empathy for the vulnerable and weaker sections of society”
• Under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987, a woman is among the persons entitled to free legal services.Frequently Asked Questions — National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) ↗“every person who has to file or defend a case shall be entitled to legal services under the Act if that person is– A member of a Scheduled Caste or Scheduled Tribe (on producing a certificate in this regard); A victim of trafficking in human beings or begar as referred to in Article 23 of the Constitution of India 1950; A woman or a child;”
• NSAP Guidelines (MoRD, October 2014): age may rest on a birth or school certificate; failing these, a ration card or EPIC; with no valid document, a government hospital's Medical Officer may be authorised to certify age.National Social Assistance Programme Guidelines, October 2014 — Ministry of Rural Development (archived copy) ↗“For age, the birth certificate or school certificate may be relied on. In their absence ration card and EPIC may be considered. If there is no valid document, any Medical Officer of any government hospital may be authorized to issue the age certificate.”
• NSAP Guidelines (2014): it is incumbent on officials to reach out to potential beneficiaries, get application forms filled and help them obtain the relevant records.National Social Assistance Programme Guidelines, October 2014 — Ministry of Rural Development (archived copy) ↗“it is incumbent on the authorized officials to reach out to potential beneficiaries on an ‘out today’ approach and get the application forms filled up and provide assistance to get the relevant records.”
• Aristotle (Nicomachean Ethics V.10): equity corrects a law that fails a case its universal wording did not cover, by saying what the legislator would have said had he been present.Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book V, tr. W. D. Ross — The Internet Classics Archive (MIT) ↗“When the law speaks universally, then, and a case arises on it which is not covered by the universal statement, then it is right, where the legislator fails us and has erred by oversimplicity, to correct the omission-to say what the legislator himself would have said had he been present, and would have put into his law if he had known.”

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• NFHS-5 (2019-21): 29.3% of ever-married women aged 18-49 have ever experienced spousal violence (urban 24.2%, rural 31.6%; NFHS-4: 31.2%).National Family Health Survey-5 (2019-21), India Fact Sheet — MoHFW / IIPS (archived copy) ↗“Ever-married women age 18-49 years who have ever experienced spousal violence27 (%) 24.2 31.6 29.3 31.2”
• CCS (Conduct) Rules, 1964, Rule 3(1): every government servant shall do nothing which is unbecoming of a government servant.Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964, updated to 27 Feb 2015 — DoPT ↗“Every Government servant shall at all times-- (i) maintain absolute integrity; (ii) maintain devotion to duty; and (iii) 44(IV) do nothing which is unbecoming of a Government servant.”
• One Stop Centres integrated with Women Helpline 181 provide integrated support to women affected by violence (PIB, Ministry of Women and Child Development).Steps to reduce gender gap — PIB, Ministry of Women and Child Development ↗“One Stop Centres integrated with Women Helpline (181) have been established across the country to provide integrated support and assistance to women affected by violence”
• NALSA: a victim of domestic violence can apply for free legal aid at the nearest Legal Services Institution.Frequently Asked Questions — National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) ↗“How can Legal Services Institutions assist victims of domestic violence? A victim of domestic violence can file an application for free legal aid in her nearest Legal Services Institution.”
• Care ethics, associated with Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings, asserts the 'voice of care' as an alternative to the justice perspective.Care Ethics — Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (University of Tennessee at Martin) ↗“the emergence of care ethics as a distinct moral theory is most often attributed to the works of psychologist Carol Gilligan and philosopher Nel Noddings in the mid-1980s. Both charged traditional moral approaches with male bias, and asserted the “voice of care” as a legitimate alternative to the “justice perspective” of liberal human rights theory.”

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• Gandhi on trusteeship (Harijan, 3 June 1939): wealth gained by legacy, trade or industry does not all belong to its holder; he is entitled only to an honourable livelihood.Unit 6: Gandhian Perspective — IGNOU eGyanKosh (archived copy) ↗“In his editorial in Harijan (3 June, 1939) the concept of trusteeship was elaborately stated: “Suppose I have come by a fair amount of wealth either by way of legacy, or by means of trade and industry, I must know that all that wealth does not belong to me, what belongs to me is the right to an honourable livelihood, no better than that enjoyed by millions of others.”
• Principle 4 of the MCA's National Guidelines on Responsible Business Conduct (2019, later than this paper): businesses should respect the interests of, and be responsive to, all stakeholders.National Guidelines on Responsible Business Conduct — Ministry of Corporate Affairs (archived copy) ↗“Principle 4: Businesses should respect the interests of and be responsive to all its stakeholders. National Guidelines on Responsible Business Conduct”
• Section 135 of the Companies Act, 2013: qualifying companies must spend at least 2% of average net profits of the three preceding years on CSR, giving preference to the local area where they operate.Statutory Requirements for CSR (Section 135, Companies Act, 2013) — CSR Portal, Government of Odisha ↗“shall ensure that the company spends, in every financial year, at least two per cent of the average net profits of the company made during the three immediately preceding financial years, in pursuance of its Corporate Social Responsibility Policy: Provided that the company shall give preference to the local area and areas around it where it operates”
• The 2nd ARC's 9th Report: aligning business operations with social values is the essence of CSR and the basis of business's contribution to social development.Second Administrative Reforms Commission, 9th Report: Social Capital – A Shared Destiny (DARPG, archived copy) ↗“As far as the corporate sector is concerned, the alignment of business operations with social values, which is the essence of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), is at the heart of its ability to contribute to social development alongside economic development.”

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• The 2nd ARC's 9th Report: voluntary organisations often feel harassed by legal obligations, while government institutions have not regulated the sector effectively; misuse of tax provisions and fraud have become frequent.Second Administrative Reforms Commission, 9th Report: Social Capital – A Shared Destiny (DARPG, archived copy) ↗“While, voluntary organisations often feel harassed in complying with various legal obligations, institutions of the government too have not been effective in regulating the sector and securing legal compliance. Instances of misuse of tax provisions, fraud and poor governance have become frequent.”
• The 2nd ARC proposed that organisations with small foreign receipts be exempt from registration and file only an annual return, so that authorities can concentrate on larger foreign funding.Second Administrative Reforms Commission, 9th Report: Social Capital – A Shared Destiny (DARPG, archived copy) ↗“should be exempt from registration and other reporting requirements. The organisations, instead, should be asked to file an annual return of foreign contributions received by them and its utilisation at the end of the year. This step will allow the authorities to concentrate more on organisations receiving larger foreign funding.”
• The 2nd ARC: accreditation of voluntary organisations should not be so complex as to cause harassment, delay and corruption, and is best done by the sector itself.Second Administrative Reforms Commission, 9th Report: Social Capital – A Shared Destiny (DARPG, archived copy) ↗“The procedure adopted for accreditation / certification should not be so complex as to lead to harassment, delay and corruption. 3.2.7.2.3 It is generally agreed that accreditation could be best done by the voluntary sector itself.”
• Prevention of Corruption (Amendment) Act, 2018 (Act 16 of 2018): a person compelled to give an undue advantage is not liable if he reports it to the law enforcement authority within seven days.Prevention of Corruption (Amendment) Bill, 2018 as passed by both Houses (Act No. 16 of 2018) — PRS Legislative Research ↗“Provided that the provisions of this section shall not apply where a person is compelled to give such undue advantage: Provided further that the person so compelled shall report the matter to the law enforcement authority or investigating agency within a period of seven days from the date of giving such undue advantage”
• RTI Act, 2005, s. 7(1): the Public Information Officer must provide the information or reject the request within thirty days of receipt.Right to Information Act, 2005 — Department of Personnel and Training ↗“on receipt of a request under section 6 shall, as expeditiously as possible, and in any case within thirty days of the receipt of the request, either provide the information on payment of such fee as may be prescribed or reject the request”
• NITI Aayog's NGO DARPAN portal lets voluntary organisations enrol centrally, builds a sector- and State-wise repository, and issues each a system-generated unique ID.NGO DARPAN portal, NITI Aayog — homepage (archived copy, 2023) ↗“This portal enables VOs/NGOs to enroll centrally and thus facilitates creation of a repository of information about VOs/NGOs, Sector/State wise and enables registered entities for applying for Grants under Grants-in-Aid schemes of Government etc.. The Portal facilitates entities to obtain a system generated NGO Darpan Unique ID, as and when signed up with all requisite information and documents.”