UPSC Philosophy Optional Syllabus 2026

History and Problems of Philosophy

Plato and Aristotle: Ideas; Substance; Form and Matter; Causation; Actuality and Potentiality.

Rationalism (Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz); Cartesian Method and Certain Knowledge; Substance; God; Mind-Body Dualism; Determinism and Freedom.

Empiricism (Locke, Berkeley, Hume) : Theory of Knowledge; Substance and Qualities; Self and God; Scepticism.

Kant: Possibility of Synthetic a priori Judgments; Space and Time; Categories; Ideas of Reason; Antinomies; Critique of Proofs for the Existence of God.

Hegel: Dialectical Method; Absolute Idealism.

Moore, Russell and Early Wittgenstein : Defence of Commonsense; Refutation of Idealism; Logical Atomism; Logical Constructions; Incomplete Symbols; Picture Theory of Meaning; Sying and Showing.

Logical Positivism: Verification Theory of Meaning; Rejection of Metaphysics; Linguistic Theory of Necessary Propositions.

Later Wittgenstein: Meaning and Use; Language-games; Critique of Private Language.

Phenomenology (Husserl): Method; Theory of Essences; Avoidance of Psychologism.

Existentialism (Kierkegaard, Sarte, Heidegger): Existence and Essence; Choice, Responsibility and Authentic Existence; Being-in-the-world and Temporality.

Quine and Strawson: Critique of Empiricism; Theory of Basic Particulars and Persons.

Carvaka: Theory of Knowlegde; Rejection of Transcendent Entities.

Jainism: Theory of Reality; Saptabhanginaya; Bondage and Liberation.

Schools of Buddhism: Prat Ityasamutpada; Ksanikavada, Nairatmyavada.

Nyaya—Vaiesesika: Theory of Categories; Theory of Appearance; Theory of Pramana; Self, Liberation; God; Proofs for the Existence of God; Theory of Causation; Atomistic Theory of Creation.

Samkhya; Prakrit; Purusa; Causation; Liberation.

Yoga; Citta; Cittavrtti; Klesas; Samadhi; Kaivalya.

Mimamsa: Theory of Knowlegde.

Schools of Vedanta: Brahman; Isvara; Atman; Jiva; Jagat; Maya; Avida; Adhyasa; Moksa; Aprthaksiddhi; Pancavidhabheda.

Aurobindo: Evolution, Involution; Integral Yoga.

Socio-Political Philosophy

Social and Political ldeals: Equality, Justice, Liberty.

Sovereignty: Austin, Bodin, Laski, Kautilya.

Individual and State: Rights; Duties and Accountability.

Forms of Government: Monarchy; Theocracy and Democracy.

Political Ideologies: Anarchism; Marxism and Socialism.

Humanism; Secularism; Multi-culturalism.

Crime and Punishment: Corruption, Mass Violence, Genocide, Capital Punishment.

Development and Social Progress.

Gender Discrimination: Female Foeticide, Land and Property Rights; Empowerment.

Caste Discrimination: Gandhi and Ambedkar. Philosophy of Religion

Notions of God: Attributes; Relation to Man and the World. (Indian and Western).

Proofs for the Existence of God and their Critique (Indian and Western).

Problem of Evil.

Soul: Immortality; Rebirth and Liberation.

Reason, Revelation and Faith.

Religious Experience: Nature and Object (Indian and Western).

Religion without God.

Religion and Morality.

Religious Pluralism and the Problem of Absolute Truth.

Nature of Religious Language: Analogical and Symbolic; Cognitivist and Non-cognitive.